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The  Twins,  Bluff  City,  Utah 


The  distance  from  the  bottom  ol  the  cliff  to  the  top  of  the  erosion 
columns  is  275  Icet. 

Frcntitpittt 


THE    WESTERN 
UNITED  STATES 


A    GEOGRAPHICAL 

READER 


BY 


HAROLD    WELLMAN    FAIRBANKS,    Ph.D 

AUTHOR   OF   "STORIES   OF  OUR    MOTHER    EARTH,"    "HOME 

GEOGRAPHY,"    "  STORIES    OF    ROCKS    AND    MINERALS," 

"  PHYSIOGRAI'HY    OF   CALIFORNIA,"    ETC. 


s*K< 


BOSTON,    U.S.A. 
D.   C.   HEATH    &    CO.,   PUBLISHERS 

1908 


Copyright,  1904, 
By  D.  C.   Heath  &  Co, 


PREFACE 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book  the  author  has  had  in 
mind  the  needs  of  the  upper  grammar  grades.  The 
subject  matter  has  not  been  selected  with  the  object  of 
covering  the  field  of  Western  geography  in  a  systematic 
manner,  but  instead  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  picture 
as  graphically  as  may  be  some  of  its  more  striking  and 
interesting  physical  features,  and  the  influence  which 
these  features  have  exerted  upon  its  discovery  and 
settlement. 

Those  subjects  have  been  presented  which  have  more 
than  local  interest  and  are  illustrative  of  world-wide  prin- 
ciples. Clear  conceptions  of  the  earth  and  man's  relation 
to  it  are  not  gained  by  general  statements  as  readily  as 
by  the  comprehensive  study  of  concrete  examples. 

Nowhere  outside  of  the  Cordilleran  region  are  to  be 
found  so  remarkable  illustrations  of  the  growth  and  de- 
struction of  physical  features,  or  so  clear  examples  of 
the  control  which  physical  features  exercise  over  the  paths 
of  exploration,  settlement,  and  industrial  development. 

The  fact  that  the  West  furnishes  a  wealth  of  material 
for  geography   teaching   has   long  been   recognized   in   a 

iii 

284380 


iv  PREFACE 

general  way,  although  there  has  be£n  but  little  attempt 
to  present  this  material  in  a  form  suitable  for  the  use  of 
schools. 

The  illustrations  are,  with  few  exceptions,  from  the 
author's  own  photographs,  and  the  descriptions  are 
made  up  from  his  personal  observations.  Since  the 
illustrations  are  numerous  and  have  been  selected  with 
much  care,  it  is  hoped  that  they  will  add  greatly  to 
the  value  of  the  text.  They  should  be  used,  and  a 
proper  understanding  of  the  pictures  made  a  part  of 
every  lesson. 


CONTENTS 


The  Work  of  the  Colorado  River 

A  Trip  into  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado 

How  the  Columbia  Plateau  was  made 

The  Canons  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 

An  Oregon  Glacier 

Something  about  Earthquakes  and  Mountain  Building 
The  Last  Volcanic  Eruptions  in  the  United  States 
The  Mud  Volcanoes  of  the  Colorado  Desert  . 
The  History  of  a  Coast  Line       .... 
The  Discovery  of  the  Columbia  River 
The  Great  Basin  and  its  Peculiar  Lakes  . 
Fremont's  Adventures  in  the  Great  Basin 
The  Story  of  Great  Salt  Lake  .... 

The  Skagit  River 

The  Story  of  Lake  Chelan 

The  Native  Inhabitants  of  the  Pacific  Slope  . 
The  Story  of  Lewis  and  Clark   .... 

The  Russians  in  California 

Death  Valley 

The  Cliff  Dwellers  and  their  Descendants     . 

The  Life  of  the  Desert 

The  Pony  Express 

How   Climate   and   Physical    Features    influenced 

Settlement  of  the  West        .... 
The  Life  of  the  Prospector  .... 


PAGE 
I 

10 

19 
31 
41 

50 
60 
70 

75 
86 

95 
106 

124 

133 
141 

151 
162 


THE 


168 
I76 
187 
I98 

207 
2i; 


vi  CONTENTS 

^  PAGE 

Gold  and  Gold-mining 223 

Copper-mining 233 

Coal  and  Petroleum 241 

The  Climate  of  the  Pacific  Slope 249 

Something  about  Irrigation 259 

The  Location  of  the  Cities  of  the  Pacific  Slope    .        .  268 

The  Forest  Belt  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains        .  278 

The  National  Parks  and  Forest  Reserves        .        .        .  290 


THE     WESTERN 
UNITED  STATES 


THE    WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 


THE   WORK    OF   THE   COLORADO    RIVER 

The  Colorado  River  is  not  old,  as  we  estimate  the  age  of 
rivers.  It  was  born  when  the  Rocky  Mountains  were  first 
uplifted  to  the  sky,  when  their  lofty  peaks,  collecting  the 
moisture  of  the  storms,  sent  streams  clashing  down  to  the 
plains  below.  Upon  the  western  slope  of  the  mountains  a 
number  of  these  streams  united  in  one  great  river,  which 
wound  here  and  there,  seeking  the  easiest  route  across  the 
plateau  to  the  Gulf  of  California. 

At  first  the  banks  of  the  river  were  low,  and  its  course 
was  easily  turned  one  way  or  another.  From  the  base  of 
the  mountains  to  the  level  of  the  ocean  there  is  a  fall  of 
more  than  a  mile,  so  that  the  river  ran  swiftly  and  was  not 
long  in  making  for  itself  a  definite  channel. 

Many  thousands  of  years  passed.  America  was  discov- 
ered. The  Spaniards  conquered  Mexico  and  sent  expedi- 
tions northward  in  search  of  the  cities  of  Cibola,  where  it 
was  said  that  gold  and  silver  were  abundant.  One  of  these 
parties  is  reported  to  have  reached  a  mighty  canon,  into 
which  it  was  impossible  to  descend.  The  canon  was  so 
deep  that  rocks  standing  in  the  bottom,  which  were  in 
reality  higher  than  the  Seville  cathedral,  appeared  no 
taller  than  a  man. 

i 


2  THE    vVFSTCny    UNITED    STATES 

l 

Another  party  discovered  the   mouth  of   the  river  and 

called  it,  because  of  their  safe  arrival,  The  River  of  Our 
Lady  of  Safe  Conduct.  They  went  as  far  up  the  river 
as  its  shallow  waters  would  permit,  but  failed  to  find 
the  seven  cities  of  which  they  were  in  search,  and  turned 
about  and  went  back  to  Mexico.  For  years  afterward 
the  river  remained  undisturbed,  so  far  as  white  men  were 
concerned.  A  great  part  of  the  stream  was  unknown  even 
to  the  Indians,  for  the  barren  plateaus  upon  either  side 
offered  no  inducements  to  approach. 

Trappers  and  explorers  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  reached 
the  head  waters  of  the  river  nearly  one  hundred  years  ago, 
and  followed  the  converging  branches  down  as  far  as  they 
dared  toward  the  dark  and  forbidding  canons.  It  was  be- 
lieved that  no  boat  could  pass  through  the  canons,  and 
that  once  launched  upon  those  turbid  waters,  the  adven- 
turer would  never  be  able  to  return. 

The  Colorado  remained  a  river  of  mystery  for  nearly 
three  centuries  after  its  discovery.  When  California  and 
New  Mexico  had  become  a  part  of  the  Union,  about  the 
middle  of  the  last  century,  the  canon  of  the  Colorado 
was  approached  at  various  points  by  government  ex- 
ploring parties,  which  brought  back  more  definite  reports 
concerning  the  rugged  gorge  through  which  the  river 
flows. 

In  1869  Major  Powell,  at  the  head  of  a  small  party, 
undertook  the  dangerous  trip  through  the  canon  by  boat. 
After  enduring  great  hardships  for  a  number  of  weeks,  the 
party  succeeded  in  reaching  the  lower  end  of  the  cation. 
Major  Powell's  exploit  has  been  repeated  by  only  one  other 
company,  and  some  members  of  this  party  perished  before 
the  dangerous  feat  was  accomplished. 


4  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

< 
The  Colorado   is  a  wonderful  stream.     It  is  fed  by  the 

perpetual  snows  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  For  some  dis- 
tance the  tributary  streams  flow  through  fertile  valleys, 
many  of  them  now  richly  and  widely  cultivated.  But  soon 
the  branches  unite  in  one  mighty  river  which,  seeming  to 
shun  life  and  sunlight,  buries  itself  so  deeply  in  the  great 
plateau  that  the  traveller  through  this  region  may  perish 
in  sight  of  its  waters  without  being  able  to  descend  far 
enough  to  reach  them.  After  passing  through  one  hun- 
dred miles  of  canon,  the  river  emerges  upon  a  desert 
region,  where  the  rainfall  is  so  slight  that  curious  and 
unusual  forms  of  plants  and  animals  have  been  devel- 
oped, forms  which  are  adapted  to  withstand  the  almost 
perpetual  sunshine  and  scorching  heat  of  summer. 

Below  the  Grand  Canon  the  river  traverses  an  open 
valley,  where  the  bottom  lands  support  a  few  Indians  who 
raise  corn,  squashes,  and  other  vegetables.  At  the  Needles 
the  river  is  hidden  for  a  short  time  within  canon  walls,  but 
beyond  Yuma  the  valley  widens,  and  the  stream  enters 
upon  vast  plains  over  which  it  flows  to  its  mouth  in  the 
Gulf  of  California. 

No  portion  of  the  river  is  well  adapted  to  navigation. 
Below  the  canon  the  channels  are  shallow  and  ever 
changing.  At  the  mouth,  enormous  tides  sweep  with 
swift  currents  over  the  shallows  and  produce  foam-decked 
waves  known  as  the  "bore." 

Visit  the  Colorado  River  whenever  you  will,  at  flood  time 
in  early  summer,  or  in  the  fall  and  winter  when  the  waters 
are  lowest,  you  will  always  find  it  deeply  discolored.  The 
name  "Colorado"  signifies  red,  and  was  given  to  the 
river  by  the  Spaniards.  Watch  the  current  and  note  how 
it  boils  and  seethes.      Tt  seems  to  be  thick  with  mud.     The 


THE   WORK   OF   THE    COLORADO    RIVER 


5 


bars  are  almost  of  the  same  eolor  as  the  water  and  are 
continually  changing.  Here  a  low  alluvial  bank  is  being 
washed  away,  there  a  broad  flat  is  forming.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Rio  Grande  in  New  Mexico,  and  the  Gila, 
which  joins  the  Colorado  at  Yuma,  no  other  river  is  known 
to  be  so  laden  with  silt.  No  other  river  is  so  rapidly  re- 
moving the  highlands  through  which  it  flows. 


Fig.  2.  —  Looking  down  the  Colorado  River  from  above  the  Needles 

Over  a  large  portion  of  the  watershed  of  the  Colorado 
the  rainfall  is  light.  This  fact  might  lead  one  to  think 
that  upon  its  slopes  the  work  of  erosion  would  go  on 
more  slowly  than  where  the  rainfall  is  heavy.  This  would, 
however,  be  a  wrong  conclusion,  for  in  places  where  there 
is  a  great  deal  of  rain  the  ground  becomes  covered  with  a 
thick  growth  of  vegetation  which  holds  the  soil  and  broken 
rock  fragments  and  keeps  them  from  being  carried  away. 


6  THE    WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

The  surface  of  the  plateaus  and  lower  mountain  slopes 
in  the  basin  of  the  Colorado  are  but  little  protected  by 
vegetation.  When  the  rain  does  fall  in  this  arid  region,  it 
often  comes  with  great  violence.  The  barren  mountain 
sides  are  quickly  covered  with  trickling  streams,  which 
unite  in  muddy  torrents  in  the  gulches,  carrying  along 
mud,  sand,  and  even  boulders  in  their  rapid  course;  the 
torrents  in  turn  deliver  a  large  part  of  their  loads  to  the 
river.  As  the  rain  passes,  the  gulches  become  dry  and 
remain  so  until  another  storm  visits  the  region.  It  is 
storming  somewhere  within  the  basin  of  the  Colorado 
much  of  the  time,  for  the  river  drains  two  hundred  and 
twenty-three  thousand  square  miles.  So  it  comes  about 
that  whether  one  visits  the  river  in  winter  or  summer 
one  always  finds  it  loaded  with  mud. 

But  what  becomes  of  all  this  mud  ?  The  river  cannot 
drop  it  in  the  narrow  canons.  It  is  not  until  the  river  has 
carried  its  load  of  mud  down  to  the  region  about  its  mouth, 
where  the  current  becomes  sluggish,  that  the  heavy  brown 
burden  can  be  discharged.  Dip  up  a  glassful  of  the  water 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  let  it  settle,  then  care- 
fully remove  the  clear  water  and  allow  the  sediment  in 
the  bottom  to  dry.  If  the  water  in  the  glass  was  six 
inches  deep,  there  will  finally  remain  in  the  bottom  a  mass 
of  hardened  mud,  which  will  vary  in  amount  with  the 
time  of  the  year  in  which  the  experiment  is  performed, 
but  will  average  about  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 
Each  cubic  foot  of  the  water,  then,  must  contain  nearly 
six  cubic  inches  of  solid  sediment  or  silt. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  average  flow  of  the  Col- 
orado River  at  Yuma  throughout  the  year  is  eighteen  thou- 
sand cubic  feet  of  water  per  second.      From  this  fact  we 


THE   WORK    OF   THE    COLORADO    RIVER  7 

can  calculate  that  there  would  be  deposited  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  every  year,  enough  sediment  to  lie  one  foot  deep 
over  sixty-six  square  miles  of  territory.  Nearly  one  three- 
hundredth  part  of  the  Colorado  River  water  is  silt,  while 
in  the  case  of  the  Mississippi  the  silt  forms  only  one  part 
in  twenty-nine  hundred. 


Fig.  3.  —  Looking  toward  the  Delta  of  tiik  Colorado  from  Yuma 

Now  we  are  prepared  to  understand  the  origin  of  the 
vast  lowlands  about  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  California. 
Long  ago  this  gulf  extended  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
farther  north  than  it  does  at  present,  so  that  it  reached 
nearly  to  the  place  where  the  little  town  of  Indio  now 
stands  in  the  northern  end  of  the  Colorado  desert. 

When  the  Colorado  River  first  began  to  flow,  it  emptied 
its  waters  into  the  gulf  not  far  from  the  spot  where  Yuma  is 
situated.    The  water  was  probably  loaded  with  silt  then  as 


8  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

it  is  now.  Part  of  this  sediment  was  dropped  at  the  mouth 
of  the  stream,  while  part  was  spread  by  the  currents  over  the 
bottom  of  the  adjoining  portions  of  the  gulf.  The  rapidly 
growing  delta  crept  southward  and  westward  into  the  gulf. 
As  fast  as  the  sediment  was  built  up  above  the  reach  of 
the  tide,  vegetation  appeared,  which,  retarding  the  flow 
of  the  water  at  times  of  flood,  aided  the  deposition  of 
silt  and  the  building  up  of  the  delta. 

As  the  centuries  went  by,  these  lowland  plains  became 
more  and  more  extensive,  until  the  gulf  was  actually  divided 
into  two  parts  by  the  spreading  of  the  delta  across  to  the 
western  shore.  The  portion  of  the  gulf  thus  cut  off  from 
the  ocean  formed  a  salt  lake  fully  one  hundred  miles  in 
length. 

We  may  suppose  that  for  a  long  time  before  the  barrier 
was  high  and  strong,  the  tidal  currents  occasionally  broke 
over  the  delta  and  supplied  the  lake  with  water.  As  the 
river  meandered  here  and  there  over  the  flat  delta,  its 
channels  must  have  undergone  many  changes  at  every 
time  of  flood.  A  part  of  the  water  without  doubt  flowed 
into  the  salt  lake,  and  another  portion  into  the  open  gulf. 
In  fact,  the  basin  in  which  the  lake  lay,  now  known  as 
the  Colorado  desert,  continued  to  receive  water  from  the 
river,  at  intervals,  until  very  recently.  In  1891  an  overflow 
occurred,  through  the  channel  known  as  New  River,  which 
flooded  the  lower  portion  of  the  basin  and  threatened  to 
cover  the  railroad. 

When  the  ocean  had  been  permanently  shut  off  from 
the  head  of  the  gulf,  and  the  river  itself  had  been  largely 
diverted  toward  the  south,  the  lake  began  to  dry  up.  At 
last,  most  of  tin-  water  disappeared  and  there  remained 
a  vast  desert   basin,  at  its  greatest  depth  two  hundred  and 


THE    WORK    OF   THE   COLORADO    RIVER  9 

fifty  feet  below  the  level  of  the  ocean.  In  the  bottom  of 
the  basin  a  bed  of  salt  appeared,  for  this  substance  could  not 
be  carried  away,  as  the  water  had  been,  by  the  thirsty  air. 

Remarkably  perfect  beaches  still  exist  around  the  shores 
■of  this  old  lake,  and  on  them  are  found  the  pearly  shells 
of  multitudes  of  fresh-water  mollusks.  The  presence  of 
these  shells  leads  us  to  believe  that  after  the  salt  lake 
dried  up,  the  river  again  broke  in  and  formed  a  new- 
lake  of  comparatively  fresh  water  which  also,  after  a 
time,  dried  up. 

The  wonderful  fertility  of  the  Colorado  delta  is  just  be- 
ginning to  be  appreciated.  Canals  have  been  dug  to  take 
the  water  from  the  river  and  distribute  it  over  the  land. 
Year  by  year  the  cultivated  lands  are  being  extended.  The 
change  which  irrigation  is  making  upon  the  surface  of  one 
of  the  worst  deserts  in  the  country  is  indeed  remarkable. 

The  Colorado  River  is  working  on  quietly  and  steadily. 
We  may  think,  and  truly,  that  it  has  already  done  a  great 
work  in  excavating  the  mighty  canons  along  its  course, 
but,  in  reality,  the  work  already  accomplished  is  small  in 
comparison  with  that  which  remains  to  be  done. 

In  time,  if  the  land  is  not  disturbed  by  the  forces  which 
build  mountains,  the  plateaus  through  which  the  river  now 
flows  in  such  deep  canons  will  be  carried  away  in  the  form 
of  sand  and  mud.  Broad  valleys  will  replace  the  canons, 
and  the  Gulf  of  California  will  become  a  fertile  plain.  As 
the  highlands  wear  away  the  process  will  go  on  more  and 
more  slowly,  for  there  will  be  less  rainfall.  The  river  will 
become  smaller  and  its  basin  more  arid.  All  these  changes 
will  be  brought  about  through  the  crumbling  of  the  rocks, 
and  the  removal  of  the  waste  matter  by  the  running  water. 


A  TRIP  INTO  THE  GRAND  CANON  OF  THE 

COLORADO 

We  may  read  of  the  Colorado  plateau,  and  of  the  Grand 
Canon  with  its  precipitous  walls  of  variously  colored  rock, 
but  unless  we  actually  visit  this  wonderland,  it  is  hard  to 
realize  the  height  and  extent  of  the  plateau  and  the  depth 
of  the  gashes  made  in  its  surface  by  running  water,  gashes 
so  deep  that  they  seem  to  expose  the  very  heart  of  the 
earth. 

Nature  has  chosen  a  remote  and  half-desert  region  for 
the  location  of  this,  the  most  picturesque  canon  in  the 
world,  as  if  she  wished  to  keep  it  as  long  as  possible  from 
the  eyes  of  men.  Once  a  traveller  could  not  view  the  canon 
without  making  a  long  and  weary  journey  across  hundreds 
of  miles  of  desert ;  now  it  is  quite  different,  for  one  can 
almost  look  into  its  depths  from  the  windows  of  a  palace 
car.  But  to  appreciate  and  understand  fully  the  stupen- 
dous work  that  nature  has  done  throughout  this  region  we 
must  leave  the  cars  at  a  somewhat  distant  point,  and  before 
reaching  the  canon  become  acquainted  with  the  country  in 
which  it  lies  through  the  old-fashioned  ways  of  travelling 
on  horseback  or  wagon. 

Flagstaff  was  formerly  the  starting-point  for  travellers 
to  the  canon,  and  we  will  choose  it  now,  for  the  old  stage 
road  offers  an  interesting  ride.  The  road  first  winds  around 
that  lofty  snow-clad  peak,  the  San  Francisco  Mountain, 
which  can  be  seen  from  all  northern  Arizona.     Leaving  the 

IO 


THE  GRAND  CANON  OF  THE  COLORADO     II 

mountain  behind,  we  strike  out  directly  across  the  high 
plateau.  The  country  is  nearly  level,  and  the  open  park- 
like forest  extends  in  every  direction  as  far  as  one  can  see. 

It  is  difficult  for  us  to  believe  that  we  are  seven  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea,  a  height  greater  than  that  of  the  high- 
est mountains  in  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  It  is  this  elevation,  however,  which  brings  the 
summer  showers  and  makes  the  air  cool  and  pleasant,  for 
the  lowlands  of  this  portion  of  the  United  States  are  barren 
deserts,  upon  which  the  sun  beats  with  almost  savage  heat. 

After  the  rainy  season  green  grass  and  an  abundance  of 
flowers  appear  in  the  open  meadows  scattered  through  the 
forest.  But,  as  a  rule,  the  entire  absence  of  water  strikes 
one  as  being  very  strange.  Where  are  the  springs  and 
running  streams  which  usually  abound  in  mountainous 
regions  ?  Throughout  the  whole  distance  of  seventy  miles 
from  Flagstaff  to  the  canon,  there  are  but  one  or  two  spots 
where  water  is  to  be  found.  These  places  are  known  as 
"water-holes"  ;  they  are  simply  hollows  in  the  surface  of 
the  ground  where  the  water  collects  after  the  showers. 

There  is  another  strange  feature  about  the  plateau  over 
which  the  road  leads ;  instead  of  sloping  down  toward  the 
Colorado  River  and  the  Grand  Canon,  the  surface  slowly 
rises,  so  that  the  little  streams  which  are  formed  after  the 
heavy  rains  flow  away  from  the  river. 

Our  journey  draws  to  an  end,  but  there  is  nothing  to 
indicate  the  presence  of  the  canon  until  we  get  glimpses 
through  the  trees  of  an  apparently  bottomless  gulf.  The 
gulf  widens  upon  a  closer  view,  we  reach  the  edge,  and  all 
its  wonderful  proportions  burst  upon  us.  Does  the  Grand 
Canon  look  as  you  thought  it  would?  Probably  not,  for  it 
is  unlike  any  other  in  the  world.     The  canon  is  very  deep. 


12  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

The  river  has  worn  its  way  for  more  than  a  mile  down  into 
the  plateau,  which  once  stretched  unbroken  from  the  cliffs 
upon  which  we  stand,  across  to  those  upon  the  opposite 
side,  nearly  ten  miles  away. 

The  clear  air  makes  objects  upon  the  opposite  side  and 
in  the  bottom  of  the  canon  seem  much  nearer  than  they 
really  are.  You  may  think  that  it  is  an  easy  task  to  go  to 
the  bottom  of  the  canon  and  climb  back  again  in  a  day, 
but  in  reality  it  is  so  difficult  an  undertaking  that  only 
those  who  are  accustomed  to  mountain  climbing  can  ac- 
complish it. 

It  is  not  merely  the  great  width  and  depth  of  the  canon 
that  impress  us,  but  also  the  bright,  variegated  colors 
which  the  different  rock  layers  display  as  they  stretch  in 
horizontal  bands  along  the  faces  of  the  cliffs,  or  sweep 
around  the  towers  and  pinnacles  until"  their  detailed  out 
lines  are  lost  in  the  distant  blue  haze. 

Our  eyes  wander  far  down,  toward  the  bottom  of  the 
canon,  following  the  alternate  lines  of  precipitous  cliffs  and 
slopes  covered  with  rock  fragments.  The  cliffs  and  slopes 
succeed  each  other  like  the  steps  in  a  giant  stairway,  until 
at  the  very  bottom  the  opposite  walls  meet  in  a  gorge  so 
narrow  that  in  only  a  few  places  does  the  river  come  into 
view,  glistening  like  a  silver  thread. 

A  hotel  stands  among  the  trees  a  short  distance  from 
the  brink  of  the  canon.  Living  here  is  expensive,  for 
every  article  of  food  has  to  be  brought  upon  the  cars 
and  wagons  for  a  distance  of  hundreds  of  miles.  Even 
the  water  has  to  be  brought  in  wagons  from  a  distant 
spring. 

In  visiting  the  canon  we  have  the  choice  of  going 
on    horseback    or   on   foot.      While   the   latter    method    is 


THE  GRAND  CANON  OF  THE  COLORADO 


13 


much  harder,  yet  one  feels  safer  upon  his  own   feet  while 
moving  along   the    steep  and   narrow  trail.     Our  start  is 


Wf 

1 

^* 

•  ■ 

«^BB|     ' 

■ 

■ 

\M^M 

j+ 

j 

'ir 

aS> 

SKT^^- 

K^g      ,, 

pFttjQ'sSL 

Fig.  4.  —  A  Scene  on  the  Trail 

made  in  the  cool  air  of  the  early  morning.  Leaving  the 
top  of  the  plateau,  where  among  the  pines  the  summer  air 
is  seldom  sultry,  and  the  winters  are  cold  and  snowy,  we 


14  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

descend,  until,  by  luncheon  time,  we  are  far  below  the 
heights  and  in  the  midst  of  an  almost  tropical  climate. 
This  difference  in  climatic  features  between  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  canon  is  equal  to  the  change  which  the 
traveller  experiences  in  a  trip  from  the  pine  forests  of 
the  northern  United  States  to  the  cactus-covered  plains 
of  Arizona. 

As  we  look  down  from  the  top  of  the  trail  it  does  not 
seem  possible  to  pass  the  great  cliffs  below,  and  yet  there 
must  be  a  way,  since  others  have  gone  before  us.  All  that 
we  have  to  do  is  simply  to  follow  the  beaten  path.  Nature 
has  conveniently  left  narrow  shelves,  crevices,  and  less  pre- 
cipitous slopes  here  and  there,  which  need  only  the  appli- 
cation of  the  pick  and  shovel  to  be  made  passable  even  for 
pack  animals.  Where  the  trail  winds  into  shady  recesses, 
we  find  stunted  fir  and  pine  trees  clinging  to  the  crevices 
and  stretching  their  roots  down  into  the  waste  rock  col- 
lected upon  projecting  ledges. 

Down,  down  we  go.  The  belt  of  the  yellow  pine  and  fir 
is  left  behind,  and  we  come  to  the  habitat  of  the  pinon 
pine  and  juniper.  These  two  will  flourish  where  there  is 
less  moisture  than  is  needed  by  the  trees  which  grow 
nearer  the  top.  Soon  the  trees  have  all  disappeared  and 
such  plants  as  the  greasewood,  cactus,  and  agave  take  their 
place.  Here,  if  it  were  not  for  the  walls  of  rock  rising  on 
every  hand,  we  might  imagine  ourselves  upon  one  of  the 
desert  plains  of  Arizona. 

New  views  open  at  every  turn  in  the  trail,  as  it  winds 
along  the  narrow  shelves  of  rock  with  precipitous  walls 
above  and  below.  Now  it  zigzags  back  and  forth  down 
a  gentle  slope,  but  is  soon  stopped  by  another  precipice. 
In   one   place,   to  escape  a  rocky  point,   the   trail  has  been 


THE  GRAND  CANON  OF  THE  COLORADO     15 


Fig.  5.  — Cliffs  on  the  Trail  into  the  Grand  Canon 

carried  around  the  face  of  a  cliff  on  a  sort  of  shelf  made 
of  logs.  It  then  passes  through  a  crevice  formed  by  the 
splitting  away  of  a  huge  piece  of  the  wall      In  many  places 


16  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

the  grade  is  so  steep  that  the  trail  is  made  practically  a 
stairway,  for  the  steps  are  necessary  to  keep  animals  from 
slipping. 

Step  by  step  we  descend  until  the  slope  becomes  more 
gentle  and  a  sort  of  terrace  is  reached,  where  men  are  at 
work  developing  a  copper  mine.  Everything  needed  for  the 
mine  is  carried  down  packed  upon  the  backs  of  sure-footed 
burros.  Even  the  water  has  to  be  brought  in  kegs  from  a 
little  spring  still  deeper  in  the  canon. 

The  trail  leaves  the  mine  and  winds  down  past  another 
cliff,  until,  when  more  than  three  thousand  feet  from  the 
top  of  the  plateau,  we  find  water  for  the  first  time.  The 
little  springs  issue  from  the  sandstone,  and  their  limited 
supply  of  water  is  soon  drunk  up  by  the  thirsty  sands. 

As  far  as  the  water  flows  it  forms  a  little  oasis  upon  the 
barren  slope.  Along  the  course  of  the  streams  are  little 
patches  of  green  grass,  flowers,  and  bushes.  Birds  flit 
about,  and  there  are  tracks  of  small  animals  in  the  mud. 
Evidently  the  water  is  as  great  an  attraction  to  them  as 
it  is  to  us.  If  a  well  were  dug  in  the  plateau  above,  we 
can  understand  now  how  deep  it  would  have  to  be  in  order 
to  reach  water.  A  well  three-fourths  of  a  mile  deep  would 
be  a  difficult  one  to  pump. 

We  are  now  in  the  bottom  of  the  main  canon,  but  deeper 
still  is  the  last  and  inner  gorge,  through  which  the  Colo- 
rado is  flowing.  For  thousands  of  centuries  the  river  has 
been  sawing  its  way  down  into  the  earth.  The  precipi- 
tous cliffs  which  we  have  passed  are  formed  of  hard  sand- 
stone or  limestone.  The  more  gentle  slopes  consist  ol 
softer  shales.  Now  the  river  has  cut  through  them  all 
and  has  reached  the  very  heart  of  the  earth,  the  solid 
granite. 


THE  GRAND  CANON  OF  THE  COLORADO 


17 


This  inner  gorge  has  almost  vertical  walls  twelve  hun- 
dred to  fifteen  hundred  feet  high.  We  can  sit  upon  the 
brink  under  a  ledge  of  rock  which  protects  us  from  the 
hot  sun,  and  watch  the  river  as  we  eat  our  luncheon. 
Far  below,  almost  directly  under  us,  it  rushes  along. 
The  roar  of   the    current    rises    but    faintly  to    our  ears. 


Fig.  6. — The  Inner  Gorge  of  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado 

The  water  is  very  muddy  and  not  at  all  like  the  clear 
mountain  streams,  far  away  upon  the  continental  divide, 
which  unite  to  form  the  river.  It  seems  as  if  the  water, 
ashamed  of  its  soiled  appearance,  wanted  to  hide  from 
the  sight  of  men.  If  so,  it  has  succeeded  well,  for  it  can 
be  seen  only  at  rare  intervals  from  the  top  of  the  canon 
walls,  and  even  at  the  bottom  of  the  main  canon  the  river 
itself  is  not  visible  unless  one  stands  upon  the  very  brink 
of  the  granite  gorge. 


1 8  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

The  work  of  the  river  is  not  yet  done.  It  will  go  on 
until  the  great  cliffs  have  crumbled  and  have  been  re- 
placed by  gentle  slopes.  It  will  not  stop  until,  at  some 
far  distant  time,  a  broad  valley  has  been  worn  out  of  the 
rocky  strata. 

The  canon  appears  much  wider  when  viewed  from  the 
bottom  than  from  the  top,  and  the  great  cliffs  far  back 
along  the  trail  seem  less  precipitous,  but  only  because  they 
are  so  far  away.  A  weary  climb  of  several  miles  awaits 
us.  We  must  rest  and  take  breath  frequently  or  we  shall 
not  reach  the  top. 

As  night  approaches  and  the  shadows  begin  to  fall, 
every  turret  and  pinnacle  stands  out  in  bold  relief.  The 
bands  of  yellow  and  red  shade  into  purple,  and  everything, 
save  the  long  winding  trail,  begins  to  have  a  weird  and 
mystical  look. 


HOW   THE  COLUMBIA    PLATEAU    WAS    MADE 

Years  ago  people  disputed  as  to  the  way  in  which  the 
earth  was  made.  Those  who  lived  where  all  the  rocks 
had,  like  lava,  the  appearance  of  having  once  been  melted, 
believed  that  fire  had  done  all  the  work.  Those  who  lived 
where  the  rocks  appeared  to  be  formed  of  hardened  mud, 
sand,  and  lime,  substances  such  as  we  find  accumulating 
under  water,  said  that  water  alone  had  been  the  means. 
But  in  later  years  the  earth's  surface  has  been  more  widely 
explored,  and  now  it  is  known  that  both  opinions  were 
partly  right.  Water  and  fire  have  both  been  concerned  in 
the  making  of  the  earth. 

In  the  great  valleys  fire-formed  rocks  are  rare,  but  they 
are  more  or  less  abundant  in  all  mountainous  regions,  for 
where  mountains  are,  there  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  weak- 
est. There  are  many  reasons  for  believing  that  the  interior 
of  the  earth  is  very  hot.  We  know  that  the  surface  is 
settling  in  some  places  and  rising  in  others,  and  that  where 
the  strain  of  the  upheaval  is  too  great  the  rocks  are  broken. 
These  convulsions  sometimes  cause  earthquakes  and  some- 
times volcanic  eruptions,  when  enormous  quantities  of 
molten  rock  are  poured  out  over  the  surface.  In  all  the 
long  history  of  our  earth  probably  no  greater  flood  of 
lava  than  that  which  made  the  Columbia  plateau  was  ever 
spread  over  the  surface  of  any  region.  Travel  where 
you  will  over  the  plains  of  southern  Idaho,  central  Wash- 
ington,  or  Oregon,   and    examine    the   rocks   which    here 

19 


20 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


and  there  rise  above  the  soil  or  are  exposed  in  the  canons, 
and  you  will  find  that  they  all  appear  to  have  been  formed 
by  fire. 

These  rocks  are  dark  in  color  and  very  hard.  They  are 
not  arranged  in  regular  layers  like  sandstone  and  shale ; 
many  of  them  show  numerous  little  cavities  which  once  con- 


Fig.  7. — Snake  River  at  Idaho  Falls 
Just  beginning  to  cut  a  canon  in  the  volcanic  plateau 

tained  steam.  These  cavities  give  to  the  rock  a  slag-like 
appearance.  In  this  kind  of  rock,  which  we  shall  call  lava, 
there  are,  of  course,  no  remains  of  shells  or  bones  of  ani- 
mals such  as  are  often  found  in  rocks  formed  from  sand 
or  clay. 

Do  not  picture  to  yourself  the  Columbia  plateau  as  one 
continuous  stretch  of  level  land,  for  it  is  broken  by  many 


HOW   THE  COLUMBIA   PLATEAU   WAS   MADE         21 

mountain  ranges.  Some  of  these  are  old  mountains 
which  were  too  tall  to  be  buried  by  the  lava,  but  most  of 
them  have  been  formed  out  of  the  plateau  itself.  The 
eruptions  which  made  the  plateau  extended  through  a 
very  long  time,  perhaps  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years, 
and  the  older  lava  is   deeply  decayed   and   covered  with 


Map  of  the  Columbia  Plateau 


soil.  Some  of  the  later  flows  show  extremely  rough  and 
rugged  surfaces  and  are  probably  only  a  few  hundred 
years  old. 

Long  ago,  before  the  eruptions  began,  the  geography  of 
the  Northwest  was  very  different  from  what  it  is  now. 
Instead  of  a  vast  plateau  there  were  mountains  and  valleys. 
Lowlands  occupied  most  of  the  region  where  the  Cascade 
Range  now  rises  with  its  lofty  volcanic  peaks.      Portions 


22  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

of  the  basin  of  the  present  Columbia  River  were  occupied 
by  lakes  which  extended  southwest  into  California. 

Movements  of  the  earth  began  to  affect  the  region  of 
the  present  plateau,  and  at  many  points  the  solid  rocks 
were  fissured  and  broken.  Then  from  that  mysterious 
region  far  beneath  the  surface  came  steam  and  gases, 
escaping  through  the  fissures'  with  explosive  force.  In 
some  places  cinder  cones  were  built  about  the  openings 
by  the  fragments  of  lava  which  were  hurled  out.  In  other 
places,  during  periods  of  less  explosive  eruption,  molten 
lava  flowed  out  in  vast  quantities.  The  lava  was  very  hot 
and  almost  as  liquid  as  water,  so  that  it  spread  in  thin 
sheets  over  hundreds  of  square  miles  of  lowland. 

One  important  series  of  fissures  through  which  eruptions 
took  place  marked  the  line  where  the  Cascade  Range  was 
to  be  built.  Other  volcanoes  appeared  over  the  surface 
of  southern  Idaho,  central  Washington,  Oregon,  and 
northeastern   California. 

The  eruptions  were  not  continuous  over  the  whole  field ; 
now  in  this  place,  now  in  that,  there  came  long  periods  of 
quiet.  During  such  periods  the  earthquakes  ceased,  the 
lava  became  cold,  and  the  clouds  of  volcanic  ashes  cleared 
from  the  air.  Frequently  the  lava  intercepted  streams 
and  blocked  the  valleys  so  that  large  lakes  were  formed. 
Whenever  the  periods  of  quiet  were  very  long,  plants 
spread  over  the  surface  and  animals  of  many  kinds  made 
their  homes  about  the  lakes. 

In  eastern  Oregon  the  John  Day  River  and  its  branches 
have  eroded  canons  through  the  later  lava  and  have  exposed 
the  sands,  clays,  and  gravels  which  collected  at  the  bottom 
of  one  of  those  ancient  lakes.  In  these  beds  the  skeletons 
of  many  strange  and  interesting  animals  have  been  found. 


HOW  THE  COLUMBIA  PLATEAU   WAS   .MADE 


23 


Evidently  they  had  once  lived  about  the  borders  of  the  lake, 
and  the  streams  had  washed  their  bones  into  the  water  and 
mingled  them  with  the  sediment. 

One  of  these  animals  appears  to  have  been  an  ancestor 
of  the  present  horse.  It  was  about  the  size  of  a  sheep, 
and  had  three  toes  instead  of  one.     Another,  probably  a 


Fig.  8.  —  Blue  Lakes, Idaho 

Formed  by  springs  issuing  from  underneath  the  lava  of  the  plateau 

very  dangerous  animal,  was  related  to  our  present  hog, 
but  stood  nearly  seven  feet  high.  Others  resembled  the 
rhinoceros,  camel,  tapir,  or  peccary.  All  but  the  peccary 
are  now  extinct  upon  this  continent.  Of  the  carnivorous 
animals  there  were  wolves  and  cats  of  large  size. 

The    eruptions   continued,   filling   the    valleys    little    by 
little,  until  in  places  the  lava  reached  a  thickness  of  nearly 


24  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

four  thousand  feet.  The  lower  mountains  were  hidden 
from  sight.  We  know  of  the  existence  of  these  buried 
mountains  because  the  wearing  away  of  the  lava  in  some 
places  has  exposed  their  summits  to  view. 

The  lava  flood  reached  farther  and  farther.  In  southern 
Idaho  it  formed  the  Snake  River  plains,  which  must  have 
been,  when  first  formed,  hundreds  of  miles  long,  seventy- 
five  miles  wide,  and  almost  as  even  as  a  floor.  If  we  could 
have  looked  on  while  these  things  were  taking  place  it 
would  have  appeared  as  if  the  whole  land  was  about  to  sink 
under  the  fiery  mass  which  flowed  out  of  the  earth.  The 
streams  and  valleys  were  completely  buried.  The  region 
of  the  John  Day  Lake,  with  all  its  animal  remains,  was 
covered.  The  lava,  like  a  sea,  crept  up  against  the  moun- 
tains surrounding  the  plateau  region.  Bays  of  lava 
extended  into  the  valleys  among  the  mountains,  while 
mountain  ridges  rose  like  islands  and  capes  from  the 
surface  of  the  flood. 

We  never  tire  of  looking  at  the  lofty  snow-capped  peaks 
of  the  Cascade  Range.  A  dozen  of  them  rise  over  ten 
thousand  feet,  and  two,  Mounts  Shasta  and  Ranier,  are 
more  than  fourteen  thousand  feet  high.  All  these  moun- 
tains were  formed  of  material  thrown  out  of  the  interior  of 
the  earth  during  the  building  of  the  Columbia  plateau. 
The  process  was  very  similar  for  each.  About  some  one 
exceptionally  active  crater  immense  quantities  of  scoria  ' 
and  lapilli2  accumulated.  Then  came  streams  of  fiery  lava, 
some  of  which,  hardening  upon  the  outer  slopes  of  the 
crater,  added  still  more  to  the  growth  of  the  mountain. 
The  process  was  very  slow,  however.     A  time  of  eruption, 

1  scoria,  i  ellular,  slaggy  lava. 

8  lapilli,  volcanii  ashes,  consisting  of  small,  angular,  stony  fragments. 


HOW  THE  COLUMBIA  PLATEAU  WAS   MADE         25 

marked  by  tremblings  of  the  earth,  explosive  noises,  and  a 
sky  filled  with  dust  and  clouds,  might  last  for  many  years. 
Then  came  a  long  period  of  rest  when  the  falling  rains, 
gathering  in  dashing  torrents,  cut  deep  gullies  down  the 
sides  of  the  mountain. 


Fig.  9. —  Pitt  River  Canon,  Northern  California 
The  plateau  is  built  of  layers  of  lava 

The  volcanoes  at  last  ceased  to  grow  any  higher,  for  the 
lava,  if  the  eruptions  continued,  formed  new  craters  at 
their  bases.  It  is  probable  that  all  these  great  peaks  have 
been  extinct  for  several  thousand  years,  although  some 
are  much  older  and  more  worn  away  than  others.  One 
of  these  volcanoes  has  completely  disappeared,  and  in  its 
place  lies  that  wonderful  sheet  of  water  known  as  Crater 


26  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

Lake.  It  is  thought  that  the  interior  of  this  mountain 
was  melted  away  during  a  period  of  activity,  and  that 
the  outer  portion  fell  in,  leaving  a  crater  five  miles  across 
and  nearly  a  mile  deep. 

The  streams  of  lava,  as  they  flowed  here  and  there 
building  up  the  plateau,  frequently  broke  up  the  rivers 
and  turned  them  into  new  channels.  As  time  went  on  the 
eruptions  were  less  violent,  and  the  rivers  became  estab- 
lished in  the  channels  which  they  occupy  to-day.  The 
Columbia  River,  winding  about  over  the  plateau,  sought 
the  easiest  path  to  the  sea.  It  soon  began  to  dig  a  chan- 
nel, and  now  has  hidden  itself  between  dark  walls  of  lava. 

But  other  forces  besides  the  streams  were  now  at  work 
in  this  volcanic  region.  The  lava  plateau  began  slowly  to 
bend  upward  along  the  line  of  the  great  volcanoes,  lift- 
ing them  upward  with  it.  In  this  manner  the  Cascade 
Range  was  formed.  The  Columbia  River,  instead  of  seek- 
ing another  way  to  the  sea,  continued  cutting  its  channel 
deeper  and  deeper  into  the  growing  mountain  range,  and 
so  has  given  us  that  picturesque  canon  which  forms  a  most 
convenient  highway  from  the  interior  of  Washington  and 
Oregon  to  the  coast. 

Take  a  sheet  of  writing  paper,  lay  it  upon  an  even 
surface,  then  slowly  push  the  opposite  edges  toward  each 
other.  This  simple  experiment  will  aid  one  in  understand- 
ing one  of  the  ways  in  which  mountain  ranges  are  made. 
Besides  the  upward  fold  of  the  plateau  which  made  the 
Cascade  Range,  another  was  formed  between  the  Blue 
Mountains  in  eastern  Oregon  and  a  spin-  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  in  northern  Idaho.  This  fold  lay  across  the 
path  of  the  Snake  River,  but  its  movement  was  so  slow- 
that  the   river  kept  its   former  channel   and   in   this  rising 


HOW  THE  COLUMBIA   PLATEAU  WAS  MADE         27 

land  excavated  a  canon  which  to-day  is  more  than  a  mile 
deep.  The  upper  twenty-five  hundred  feet  of  the  canon  are 
cut  into  the  lava  of  the  plateau,  and  the  lower  three  thousand 
into  the  underlying  granite.  The  canon  is  not  so  pictu- 
resque as  the  Colorado,  for  it  has  no  rocks  with  variegated 
coloring  or  castellated  walls.  Its  sides  are,  however,  ex- 
ceedingly precipitous  and  it  is  difficult  to  enter. 


Fig.  10.  —  Shoshone  Falls,  Snake  River,  Idaho 


Along  portions  of  the  lower  Columbia  and  Snake  rivers, 
navigation  is  obstructed  by  rapids  and  waterfalls.  The 
presence  of  these  falls  teaches  us  that  these  streams  are 
still  at  work  cutting  their  channels  deeper.  The  Snake 
River  in  its  upper  course  has  as  yet  cut  only  a  very  shallow 
channel  in  the  hard  lava,  and  the  beautiful  Shoshone  Falls 


28  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

marks  a  point  where  its  work  is  slow.  These  falls,  which 
are  the  finest  in  the  northwest,  owe  their  existence  to  the 
fact  that  at  this  particular  spot  layers  of  strong  resistant 
lava  cover  the  softer  rocks. 

There  are  other  canons  in  the  plateau  region  which  are 
fully  as  remarkable  as  those  which  have  been  mentioned. 
That  of  the  Des  Chutes  River  in  central  Oregon  is  in  places 
a  thousand  feet  deep,  with  almost  vertical  walls  of  lava. 

We  have  already  seen  how  mountains  have  been  formed 
upon  the  Columbia  plateau,  by  a  bending  of  the  earth 
upward.  Other  mountains  of  the  plateau  are  due  to  frac- 
tures in  the  solid  rocks,  often  many  miles  long.  Upon 
one  side  of  these  fractures  the  surface  has  been  depressed, 
while  upon  the  other  it  has  been  raised.  The  amount  of 
the  uplift  varies  from  a  few  hundred  to  thousands  of  feet. 
The  mountains  thus  formed  have  a  long,  gentle  slope  upon 
one  side  and  a  very  steep  incline  upon  the  other.  They 
are  known  as  "  block  mountains,"  and  those  upon  the 
Columbia  plateau  are  the  most  interesting  of  their  kind 
in  the  world. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  large  rivers,  the  greater 
portion  of  the  Columbia  plateau  is  remarkable  for  its  lack 
of  surface  streams.  The  water  which  reaches  the  borders 
of  the  plateau  from  the  surrounding  mountains  often  sinks 
into  the  gravel  between  the  layers  of  lava  and  forms 
underground  rivers.  The  deep  canons  which  have  been 
mentioned  intercept  some  of  these  underground  rivers,  so 
that  their  waters  pour  out  and  down  over  the  sides  of  the 
canons  in  foaming  cascades.  The  greatest  of  these  cas- 
cades is  that  known  as  the  Thousand  Springs  in  the 
Snake  River  canon.  The  waters  of  the  Blue  Lakes  in  the 
canon  of  the  same  river  below  Shoshone   Falls  also  come 


Fig.  ii.  — Canon  of  Crooked  River  near  the  Des  Chutes  River 
Eroded  in  the  Columbia  plateau 


30  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

from  underneath  the  lava.  They  are  utilized  in  irrigating 
the  most  picturesque  fruit  ranch  in  southern  Idaho. 

The  climate  of  the  plateau  is  dry,  and  its  eastern  portion 
is  practically  a  desert.  Toward  the  west,  however,  the 
rainfall  is  greater,  and  in  central  Washington  and  northern 
Oregon  the  plateau  becomes  one  vast  grain-field.  It  is 
difficult  to  irrigate  the  plateau  because  the  streams  flow 
in  such  deep  canons,  but  above  the  point  where  the  canon 
of  the  Snake  River  begins  there  is  an  extensive  system  of 
canals  and  cultivated  fields.  With  a  sufficient  water  sup- 
ply, the  lava  makes  one  of  the  richest  and  most  productive 
of  soils.  Along  the  Snake  and  Columbia  rivers,  wherever 
there  is  a  bit  of  bottom  land,  orchards  have  been  planted. 
Little  steamers  ply  along  these  rivers  between  the  rapids, 
gathering  the  fruit  and  delivering  it  at  the  nearest  railroad 
point. 

Mining  is  carried  on  only  in  the  mountains  which  rise 
above  the  lava  flood,  for  the  mineral  veins  are  for  the  most 
part  older  than  the  lava  of  the  plateau.  We  are  certain 
that  many  very  valuable  deposits  of  the  precious  metals  lie 
buried  beneath  the  lava  fields. 

It  is  thought  that  the  volcanic  history  of  the  Columbia 
plateau  has  been  completed.  Now  the  streams  are  at  work 
carrying  away  the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed  and 
may  in  time  uncover  the  old  buried  land  surface. 


THE   CANONS   OF   THE   SIERRA    NEVADA 
MOUNTAINS 

The  western  half  of  our  country  contains  the  deepest 
and  most  picturesque  canons  in  the  world.  Those  of  the 
Colorado  and  Snake  rivers  form  trenches  in  a  compara- 
tively level  but  lofty  plateau  region.  The  canons  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Range,  on  the  contrary,  take  their  rise  and 
extend  for  much  of  their  length  among  rugged  snow- 
capped peaks  which  include  some  of  the  highest  moun- 
tains in  the  United  States.  All  these  canons  are  the 
work  of  erosion.  The  rivers  did  not  find  depressions 
formed  ready  for  them  to  occupy,  but  had  to  excavate 
their  channels  by  the  slow  process  of  grinding  away  the 
solid  rock. 

The  streams  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  begin 
their  course  in  steep-walled  alcoves  under  the  shadows 
of  the  high  peaks,  where  they  are  fed  by  perpetual  snow- 
banks. Soon  they  bury  themselves  between  granite  walls, 
which  at  last  tower  three  thousand  feet  above  their  roar- 
ing waters.  After  many  miles  the  canons  widen,  the  walls 
decrease  in  height,  and  the  streams  come  out  upon  the 
fertile  stretches  of  the  Great  Valley  of  California. 

Nature  works  in  many  ways.  Her  tools  are  of  different 
kinds,  but  the  most  important  one  is  running  water.  The 
forms  which  she  produces  are  dependent  upon  the  kind  of 
rock  upon  which  she  works.  Where  the  surface  of  the 
earth  is  soft  the  results  of  her  labor  are  not  very  interest- 
s' 


32 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


ing,  but  if  the  crust  is  hard  the  forms  which  she  produces 
are  often  so  remarkable  that  they  arouse  our  wonder  and 
admiration. 

In  shaping  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  Nature  had 
a  grand  opportunity.  Here  she  produced  the  Yosemite 
Valley,  which  has  a  setting  of  cliffs  and  waterfalls  that 


Fig.  12.  —  :San  Joaquin  River  emerging  upoi 

Great  Valley 


he  Plain  of  the 


attract  people  from  all  over  the  world.  Hetch-Hctchy 
Valley  at  the  north  of  the  Yosemite,  and  Tehipite  and 
King's  River  canons  at  the  south,  are  interesting  places, 
but  not  so  majestic  and  inspiring  as  the  Yosemite. 

Nature  never  seems  satisfied  with  her  work.  After  she 
has  created  a  piece  of  wonderful  scenery  she  proceeds  to  de- 
stroy it.  The  great  cliffs  of  the  Yosemite  will  sometime  lose 
their  grandeur  and  be  replaced  by  gentle  slopes  clown  which 


CANONS   OF   THE    SIERRA   NEVADA   MOUNTAINS      33 

the  streams  will  flow  quietly.  The  mountains  of  the  Lauren- 
tian  highlands  in  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  continent 
undoubtedly  were  once  lofty  and  picturesque,  but  there  were 
no  people  upon  the  earth  at  that  time  to  enjoy  this  scenery. 
Now  these  mountains  have  become  old  and  are  nearly  worn 
down. 


Fig.  13. 


Where  the  Canons  begin  under  Precipitous  Peaks 
The  head  of  the  King's  River 


In  one  portion  of  the  earth  after  another,  Nature  raises 
great  mountain  ranges  and  immediately  proceeds  to  remove 
them.  This  continent  was  discovered  and  California  was 
settled  at  the  right  time  for  the  Sierra  Nevadas  to  be  seen 


in  all  their  grandeur. 


When  the  pioneers  came  in  sight  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
(snowy  range),  they  little  dreamed  of  the  canons  hidden 
among  these  mountains.     Gold,  and  not  scenerv,  was  the 


34  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

object  of  their  search.  The  great  canons  were  outside  of 
the  gold  regions,  and  so  inaccessibly  situated  that  no  one 
except  the  Indians  looked  upon  them  until  185 1.  In  that 
year  a  party  of  soldiers  following  the  trail  of  some  thiev- 
ing Indians  discovered  and  entered  the  Yosemite  Valley, 
but  it  was  not  explored  until  1855.  For  many  years  the 
valley  could  be  reached  only  by  the  roughest  trails,  but 
as  its  advantages  became  more  widely  known  roads  were 
built,  and  there  are  now  three  different  wagon  routes  by 
which  it  may  be  entered. 

The  history  of  the  Yosemite  Valley  is  like  that  of  all 
the  other  canons  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  Long 
ago  there  were  no  high  mountains  in  eastern  California. 
If  there  had  been  explorers  crossing  the  plains  in  those 
days,  they  would  have  found  no  rugged  wall  shutting 
them  off  from  the  Pacific.  There  came  a  time,  however, 
when  the  surface  of  the  western  portion  of  America  was 
broken  by  violent  earthquake  movements,  and  hundreds 
of  fissures  were  formed.  Some  of  the  earth  blocks  pro- 
duced by  these  fissures  were  shoved  upward,  while  others 
were  dropped.  One  enormous  block,  which  was  to  form 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  was  raised  along  its  eastern  edge  until 
it  stood  several  thousand  feet  above  the  adjoining  coun- 
try. The  movement  was  like  that,  of  a  trap-door  opened 
slightly,  so  that  upon  one  side  —  in  this  case  the  western 
one — the  slope  was  long  and  gentle,  while  upon  the  east 
it  was  very  abrupt. 

Nature,  the  sculptor,  took  this  mountain  block  in  hand, 
and  with  the  aid  of  running  water  began  to  carve  its  sur- 
face into  a  most  intricate  system  of  canons  and  ridges. 
The  streams  first  flowed  over  the  easiest  slopes  to  the 
Great  Valley  of  California,  but   soon    they  began   to    cut 


36  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

their  way  down  into  the  granite,  while  along  the  crests  of 
the  ridges  the  more  resistant  rocks  began  to  stand  out  as 
jagged  peaks. 

Thus  Nature  worked  until  the  mountains  promised  be- 
fore long  to  be  well  worn  down.  The  canons  had  widened 
to  valleys  and  the  rugged  slopes  had  given  place  to  gentle 
ones.  Toward  the  northern  end  of  the  range  the  work 
was  even  farther  advanced,  for  the  streams,  now  choked 
with  gravel  and  sand,  flowed  over  broad  flood  plains.  In 
this  gravel  was  buried  a  part  of  the  wealth  of  Califor- 
nia. The  rocks  over  which  the  streams  flowed  contained 
veins  of  quartz  with  little  particles  of  gold  scattered 
through  it,  and  as  the  surface  rock  crumbled  and  was 
worn  away,  the  gold,  being  much  heavier,  slowly  accu- 
mulated in  the  gravel  at  the  bottom  of  the  streams.  This 
gold  amounted  in  value  to  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars. 

The  forces  within  the  earth  became  active  again. 
Apparently  Nature  did  not  intend  that  the  gold  should 
be  forever  buried,  or  that  the  country  should  always  ap- 
pear so  uninteresting.  Internal  forces  raised  the  moun- 
tain block  for  a  second  time,  tilting  it  still  more  to  the 
westward.  Volcanoes  broke  forth  along-  the  summit  of 
the  range  near  the  line  of  fracture,  and  floods  of  lava 
and  volcanic  mud  ran  down  the  slopes,  completely  filling 
the  broad  valleys  of  the  northern  Sierras  and  burying  a 
great  part  of  the  gold-bearing  gravel. 

The  eruptions  turned  the  streams  from  their  channels, 
but  on  the  steeper  slope  of  the  mountains  the  rivers  went 
energetically  to  work  making  new  beds.  They  cut  down 
through  the  lava  and  the  buried  gravel  until  they  finally 
reached  the  solid  rock  underneath.  Into  this  rock,  which 
we  call  "bed-rock,"  they  have  now  worn  canons  two  thou- 


CANONS   OF   THE    SIERRA   NEVADA   MOUNTAINS      37 

sand  feet  deep.  The  beds  of  gravel  that  lay  under  the  old 
streams  frequently  form  the  tops  of  the  hills  between  these 
deep  canons.  Here  they  are  easily  accessible  to  the  miners, 
who  by  tunnels  or  surface  workings  have  taken  out  many 
millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  gold. 

The  important  canons  of  the  northern  Sierras,  where 
the  gold  is  found,  have  been  made  by  the  American  and 
Feather  rivers.  Farther  south  are  the  deeper  and  more 
rugged  canons  of  the  Tuolumne,  Merced,  King's,  and 
Kern  rivers,  which  open  to  us  inviting  pathways  into  the 
mountains. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  the  mantle  of  snow  and  ice 
which  at  that  time  covered  most  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth  would  have  protected  it  from  further  erosion,  but 
this  was  not  the  case.  In  the  basin  at  the  head  of  each 
stream  the  snow  accumulated  year  after  year  until  it  was 
more  than  a  thousand  feet  deep.  Under  the  influence  of 
the  warm  days  and  cold  nights  the  snow  slowly  turned  to 
ice,  and  moved  by  its  own  weight,  crept  down  into  the 
canons.  The  solid  rock  walls  were  ground  and  polished, 
and  even  now,  so  long  a  time  after  the  glaciers  have 
melted,  some  of  these  polished  surfaces  still  glisten  in 
the  sunlight.  The  glaciers  deepened  and  enlarged  the 
canons,  but  running  water  was  the  most  important  agent 
in  their  making. 

Upon  the  disappearance  of  the  glaciers,  the  streams  went 
to  work  again  deepening  their  canons.  From  their  start- 
ing-points, under  the  lofty  crags,  they  first  ran  through 
broad  upland  valleys,  then  tumbled  into  the  canons ;  but 
until  they  had  reached  the  lower  mountain  slopes,  to 
which  the  glaciers  had  not  extended,  they  passed  through 
a  dreary  and  desolate  region  devoid  of  almost  every  sign 


38  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

of  life.  The  glaciers  had  swept  away  all  the  loose  rock  and 
soil,  and  it  was  many  long  years  before  the  surface  again 
crumbled  so  that  forest  trees  could  spread  over  it  once  more. 

The  grandeur  and  attractiveness  of  the  Yosemite  is  partly 
due  to  the  precipitous  cliffs  enclosing  the  valley,  some  of 
which  are  nearly  four  thousand  feet  in  height,  partly  to 
the  high  waterfalls,  and  partly  to  the  green  meadows  and 
forest  groves  through  which  the  Merced  River  winds. 

Although  the  glaciers  had  little  to  do  with  the  making 
of  the  Yosemite  Valley,  yet  they  added  to  its  attractive- 
ness. The  valley  is  situated  where  a  number  of  smaller 
streams  join  the  Merced  River.  Erosion  was  more  rapid 
here  because  the  granite  was  soft,  while  the  vertical  seams 
in  the  rock  gave  the  growing  valley  precipitous  walls. 
When  the  glacier  came  it  pushed  out  the  loose  rocks 
and  boulders,  and  dropping  a  portion  of  them  at  the 
lower  end,  made  a  dam  across  the  Merced  River.  At  first 
a  shallow  lake  filled  the  valley,  but  after  a  time  the 
silt  and  gravel  which  the  streams  were  continually  bring- 
ing in  filled  the  lake,  and  formed  marshy  flats.  Finally, 
grasses  and  trees  spread  over  these  flats  and  gave  the  valley 
the  appearance  which  it  has  to-day. 

Besides  the  meadows,  the  glaciers  gave  us  two  of  the 
waterfalls.  Yosemite  Creek,  which  comes  down  over  the 
walls  twenty-seven  hundred  feet  in  three  successive  falls, 
was  turned  into  its  present  channel  by  a  dam  which  a 
glacier  had  left  across  its  old  course.  A  glacier  also 
turned  the  Merced  River  at  its  entrance  to  the  main  val- 
ley so  as  to  form  the  Nevada  Fall. 

After  the  valley  had  been  made  and  clothed  in  vegeta- 
tion, it  was  discovered  by  a  small  tribe  of  Indians  who 
came  here  to  make  their  home,  secure  from  all  their  one- 


Fig.  15.  —  The  Canon  of  Bubb's  Creek,  a  Branch  of  the 
King's  River  Canon 


40  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

mies.  There  were  fish  in  the  streams  and  animals  in  the 
woods.  The  oaks  supplied  acorns,  and  in  early  summer 
the  meadows  were  covered  with  strawberries.  Legends 
were  associated  with  many  of  the  cliffs  and  waterfalls,  for 
the  Indians,  like  ourselves,  are  impressed  by  the  wonders 
of  Nature. 

Hetch-Hetchy  Valley,  twenty-five  miles  north  of  the 
Yosemite,  has  been  formed  upon  much  the  same  plan,  but 
a  portion  of  its  floor  is  marshy  and  there  are  few  water- 
falls. King's  River  Canon  has  no  green  meadows  and  no 
high  waterfalls,  while  its  great  granite  walls  are  not  so  pre- 
cipitous as  those  of  the  Yosemite.  Next  to  the  Yosemite, 
in  the  wildness  of  its  scenery,  is  Tehipite  Canon.  This 
canon  is  situated  upon  the  middle  fork  of  King's  River, 
about  a  hundred  miles  south.  For  many  miles  its  walls 
and  domes  present  ever  changing  views. 

A  continual  struggle  is  going  on  between  the  forces 
within  the  earth  and  the  sculptor  working  upon  its  sur- 
face. First  one,  then  the  other,  gains  the  advantage. 
Where  the  mountains  are  steep  and  high,  often  the  forces 
within  have  recently  been  active.  Where  they  are  low 
and  the  slopes  are  gentle,  the  sculptor  has  long  held  sway. 
She  begins  by  making  the  surface  as  rough  and  pic- 
turesque as  possible,  but  after  a  time  she  destroys  her 
own  handiwork. 


AN   OREGON    GLACIER 

There  are  records  all  about  us  of  events  which  took 
place  upon  the  earth  long  before  there  were  any  human 
inhabitants.  These  records  have  been  preserved  in  the 
rocks,  in  the  geographic  features  of  the  land  and  water, 
and  in  the  distribution  of  the  animals  and  plants.  On 
every  hand  appear  evidences  of  changes  in  the  surface  of 
the  earth  and  in  the  climate. 

Through  all  the  central  and  northern  United  States,  if 
we  except  some  of  the  mountains  of  the  West,  the  winter 
snows  entirely  disappear  long  before  the  coming  of  sum- 
mer. But  the  climate  of  this  region  has  not  always  been 
so  pleasant  and  mild.  Lands  now  densely  peopled  were 
once  buried  under  a  thick  mantle  of  ice  which  lasted 
through  many  thousands  of  years. 

Scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  northern  United  States 
are  vast  numbers  of  boulders  and  rock  fragments  which 
are  not  at  all  like  the  solid  rocks  beneath  the  soil.  The 
history  of  these  materials  takes  us  back  to  the  Glacial 
period,  which  can  be  best  understood  from  a  study  of  some 
one  of  the  glaciers  now  existing  upon  the  mountains  of  the 
northwestern  part  of  our  country. 

Among  the  lofty  mountain  ranges  of  the  Cordilleran 
region  there  are  many  peaks  upon  which  perpetual  snow- 
banks nestle,  defying  the  long  summer  days.  Where  the 
winters  are  long  and  cold  and  the  storms  are  severe,  im- 
mense drifts  of  snow  collect  in  the  hollows  and  canons  of 

41 


42  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

the  mountain  slopes.  Each  summer  all  or  a  part  of  this 
snow  melts.  Upon  the  northern  slopes  the  melting  process 
is  slower,  and  if  there  happens  to  be  a  large  basin  upon 
that  side,  an  extensive  field  of  snow  remains  until  the  winter 
storms  come  again.  Each  winter  new  snow  is  added  to 
the  surface,  while  the  older  snow,  becoming  hard  and  firm 
through  repeated  freezing  and  thawing,  at  last  turns  to  ice. 

This  mass  of  snow  and  ice  does  not  remain  stationary,  as 
might  be  expected  from  its  apparent  solidity.  Under  the 
influence  of  its  own  weight  and  of  alternations  of  heat  and 
cold,  it  flows  down  the  incline  like  a  very  thick  liquid. 
During  the  winter  the  ice  melts  but  little,  and  the  move- 
ment is  slow,  but  in  the  summer,  under  the  influence  of 
the  warm  days  and  cool  nights,  both  the  melting  and  the 
rate  of  flow  of  the  ice  are  increased.  A  moving  body  of 
snow  and  ice  of  this  sort  is  called  a  "  glacier."  It  creeps 
down  the  mountain  slope  and  into  some  canon,  until,  in  the 
warmer  air  of  the  lower  mountains,  the  rate  of  advance  is 
exactly  balanced  by  the  rate  of  melting  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  mass.  The  glaciers  in  the  United  States  are  at  present 
comparatively  small,  but  once  these  icy  masses  stretched 
over  the  mountains  and  lowlands  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
continent. 

In  the  southern  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  no  permanent 
snow  exists  below  an  elevation  of  about  eleven  thousand 
feet,  but  as  we  go  north  snow-fields  are  found  lower  and 
lower,  until  in  the  fiords  of  Alaska  enormous  glaciers 
reach  down  to  the  sea. 

A  glacier  worthy  of  our  study  may  be  found  upon  the 
Three  Sisters,  a  group  of  lofty  and  picturesque  volcanic 
mountains  rising  from  the  summit  of  the  Cascade  Range  in 
central  Oregon.     There  is  a  deep  depression  between  two 


AN   OREGON   GLACIER 


43 


of  the  peaks,  which  slopes  down  to  the  north  and  is  thus 
particularly  well  adapted  to  catch  and  retain  the  drifting 
snows.  Consequently  the  glacier  to  which  it  gives  rise  is 
of  exceptional  size,  being  nearly  three  miles  long  and  half 
a  mile  wide. 

The    easiest    path    to   the   Three    Sisters    is    by    way 
of    the    McKenzie    River    from    Eugene,    Oregon.     The 


Fig.  16.  —  The  Three  Sisters,  from  the  North 
Showing  snow-fields  and  glacier.     Fields  of  recent  lava  appear  in  the  foreground 

McKenzie  is  a  noted  stream  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
in  the  state.  The  river  courses  through  dense  forests,  and 
its  clear,  cold  water  is  filled  with  trout.  So  tempes- 
tuous is  the  weather  about  the  Cascade  range  that  July  is 
almost  the  only  month  in  which  one  can  visit  the  Three 
Sisters  without  danger  of  being  caught  in  severe  storms. 
The    traveller    leaves    the    river    a    few    miles    above 


44  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

McKenzie  Bridge,  where  a  small  tributary  known  as  Lost 
Creek  joins  it.  Lost  Creek  flows  under  the  lava  from  a 
lake  near  the  Three  Sisters,  while  another  stream,  coming 
from  the  glacier  of  which  we  are  in  search,  flows  down 
the  same  valley  upon  the  surface  of  the  lava  and  almost 
directly  over  the  hidden  stream. 

Upon  the  summit  of  the  Cascade  Range  the  dense 
forests  of  the  river  valley  give  place  to  more  open  woods 
interspersed  with  park-like  meadows.  A  few  miles  away 
to  the  south  rise  the  volcanic  peaks  of  the  Three  Sisters, 
clear  and  cold  in  the  mountain  air,  wrapt  about  with  a 
mantle  of  white  except  where  the  slopes  are  too  precipi- 
tous to  hold  the  snow. 

An  indistinct  trail  leads  through  the  tamarack  forest 
and  over  a  field  of  rugged  lava  to  the  base  of  the  peaks. 
Here  we  come  upon  a  swiftly  flowing  stream  of  a  strange 
milky  color.  This  appearance  is  due  to  the  presence  of  fine 
mud,  the  product  of  the  work  of  the  glacier  at  the  head  of 
the  stream  as  it  slowly  and  with  mighty  power  grinds  away 
the  surface  of  the  rocks  over  which  it  moves.  Wherever 
one  meets  a  stream  of  this  kind,  he  will  probably  be  safe 
in  asserting  that  it  is  fed  by  a  glacier  upon  some  distant 
mountain  peak. 

This  little  stream,  the  course  of  which  we  must  follow 
to  reach  the  glacier,  is  choked  with  sand  and  pebbles 
brought  to  it  by  the  moving  ice.  These  are  not  ordinary 
stream  pebbles,  for  they  have  strangely  flattened  sides 
which  often  show  scratches,  and  look  as  if  they  had  been 
ground  off  against  a  grindstone.  They  are  the  tools  with 
which  the  ice  does  its  work.  The  ice  block  takes  up  the 
rock  fragments  which  fall  upon  its  surface  or  which  it 
tears  from  beneath,  and  carries  them  along,  grinding  every 


AN    OREGON    GLACIER 


45 


surface  which  it  touches.  The  fragments  are  dropped 
at  the  end  of  the  glacier,  and  the  smaller  pebbles  are 
washed  away  down  the  stream  that  flows  from  the  melting 
ice. 

We  follow  up  the  little  glacial  creek,  past  icy  snow- 
banks and  through  groves  of  fir  trees  where  the  warm 
sunshine  brings  out  the  resinous  odors.     Upon  one  side  of 


Fig.  17.  —  Glacier  on  the  Three  Sisters 


the  canon  there  lies  a  field  of  black  lava  which  not  many 
hundreds  of  years  ago  forced  this  glacial  creek  from  an 
earlier  channel  into  its  present  bed.  Now  we  come  upon 
what  appears  at  first  to  be  a  snow-bank  lying  across  the 
course  of  the  stream,  and  from  beneath  which  its  waters 
issue.  Deep  cracks  in  the  outer  mass  of  snow  show  the 
clear,  pale-green  ice  below.  This  is  the  lower  end  of  the 
glacier  which  we  have  been  so  long  a  time  in  reaching. 


46  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

A  short  climb  up  a  steep  slope  brings  us  to  the  top  of 
the  glacier.  It  forms  a  perfectly  even  plain,  extending 
back  with  a  gentle  slope  to  the  head  of  a  deep  notch 
between  the  two  northern  Sisters,  while  above  and  beyond 
rise  the  steeper  snow-fields,  from  which  this  ice  is  con- 
tinually renewed. 

The  glacier  does  not  terminate  in  the  usual  manner,  with 
a  stream  flowing  from  its  centre,  for  the  outlet  is  at  one 
side,  while  the  middle  abuts  against  a  low  mound  of  rock. 
This  mound  we  find  most  interesting,  for  upon  reaching 
its  top  we  look  down  into  a  volcanic  crater.  From  this 
crater  flowed  the  great  stream  of  lava  to  which  we  have 
already  referred.  The  lava  ran  downward,  bending  this 
way  and  that  among  the  hollows,  until  it  spread  nearly 
to  the  McKenzie  River. 

During  the  Glacial  period,  before  the  eruption  took 
place,  this  glacier  was  much  larger.  The  summit  of  the 
Cascade  Range  was  then  covered  by  glaciers.  This  fact 
we  know  from  the  presence  of  grooved  and  polished 
rocks  wherever  the  surface  has  not  been  worn  away  or 
covered  with  newer  lava.  The  Glacial  period  had  passed 
away  and  the  climate  had  become  much  the  same  as  it  now 
is  when  the  volcanic  forces  broke  out  at  the  spot  where  the 
crater  is  situated.  The  eruption  undoubtedly  melted  the 
ice  in  the  vicinity,  but  after  it  had  ceased  and  the  rocks  had 
become  cold,  the  glacier  never  gained  strength  enough  to 
push  the  loose  materials  of  the  volcanic  cone  out  of  its  path. 
The  ice  banked  up  snugly  against  the  obstruction,  and  as  it 
melted  the  water  found  its  way  out  at  the  side  of  the  lava. 

Although  the  surface  of  the  glacier  appears  at  first  to 
offer  an  easy  route  to  the  higher  mountain  slopes,  yet  there 
are  numerous   hidden   crevices  into   which  one    may  fall. 


AN    OREGON   GLACIER 


47 


The  safest  arrangement  is  to  tie  a  company  of  people 
together  with  a  stout  rope,  so  that  if  one  falls  into  a  crevice 
the  rope  will  save  him.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  glacier 
the  ice  becomes  so  badly  fissured  that  it  is  necessary  to 
turn  toward  the  right  margin.  There  are  two  sets  of  these 
fissures,  one  parallel  to  the  direction  in  which  the  glacier  is 


Fig.  iS.  —  Moraine  at  the  End  of  the  Glacier 

moving,  the  other  at  right  angles.  They  are  due  to  the  strain 
to  which  the  ice  is  subjected  as  it  moves  along  at  an  uneven 
rate  and  over  a  surface  composed  of  hollows  and  ridges. 

Leaving  the  glacier,  we  climb  upon  a  long  low  ridge  of 
gravel  and  boulders  mixed  with  fragments  of  ice.  The 
fragments  of  rock  which  have  fallen  upon  the  surface 
of  the  ice  or  been  torn  from  the  rock  over  which  it  is  mov- 
ing, have  been  heaped  up  along  its  sides  somewhat  as  a 


48  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

ridge  of  snow  is  raised  along  each  side  of  the  course 
of  a  snow-plough.  Such  a  ridge  of  debris  along  the  side  of 
a  glacier  is  known  as  a  marginal  moraine.  A  similar  ridge, 
formed  by  the  accumulation  of  rock  fragments  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  glacier,  is  a  terminal  moraine.  These  ridges 
and  hollows  formed  by  the  ice  are  found  all  over  the 
northern  portion  of  the  United  States.  The  hollows  once 
filled  with  ice  are  now  occupied  by  the  beautiful  lakes 
of  this  portion  of  our  country. 

As  we  climb  along  the  moraine  at  the  margin  of  the 
glacier,  many  openings  appear  in  the  clear  green  ice. 
There  is  the  sound  of  gurgling  waters,  and  occasionally 
pieces  of  ice  and  rock  fall  into  dimly  outlined  caverns 
which  are  narrow  at  the  top,  but  far  below  widen  out  to 
the  proportion  of  chambers. 

After  the  head  of  the  glacier  is  attained  there  is  still  a 
hard  climb  over  the  snow-fields,  which  extend  upward  so 
far  that  they  seem  to  have  no  end.  When  at  last  the  gap 
between  the  peaks  is  gained  we  are  completely  tired  out. 
The  summit  of  the  middle  Sister  rising  directly  above  us 
is  still  a  thousand  feet  higher,  but  there  is  not  time  to-day 
to  reach  it. 

A  magnificent  vista  is  spread  out  upon  every  hand. 
Extending  north  and  south  along  the  crest  of  the  Cas- 
cade Range  there  is  a  line  of  sharp  snowy  peaks  with  sum- 
mer clouds  floating  about  them.  How  these  peaks  contrast 
with  the  dark  blue  of  the  surrounding  forests!  Opposite 
us,  upon  the  south,  is  the  third  Sister,  white  with  snow 
from  top  to  bottom,  while  in  the  basin  between  this  peak 
and  the  ridge  on  which  we  arc  standing  lie  the  remnants 
of  a  once  mighty  glacier. 

But  it  is  time  to  return.      The  cold,  foggy  clouds  are  hid- 


AN   OREGON    GLACIER 


49 


ing  the  summits  and  will  soon  envelop  the  spot  where  we 
stand.  We  go  down  by  a  different  path,  but  over  almost 
continuous  snow-fields,  for  more  than  two  miles.  The 
return  is  much  easier  than  the  ascent,  although  if  one  lost 
his  footing  upon  some  steep  slope,  it  would  mean  a  long 
slide  or  tumble.     The  solid  earth  is  reached  without  acci- 


Fig.  19. —  A  Boulder  left  by  a  Glacier 

dent.  What  a  relief  to  have  some  firm  hold  for  the 
feet  again !  Climbing  over  a  field  of  rough  lava  is  easier 
than  toiling  through  soft  snow. 

The  region  about  the  Three  Sisters  is  just  as  nature  left 
it,  for  the  home  of  the  nearest  settler  is  many  miles  away. 
Although  now  it  has  few  visitors,  this  country  will  become 
attractive  when  its  wonderful  volcanic  and  glacial  phe- 
nomena are  better  known. 


SOMETHING   ABOUT   EARTHQUAKES   AND 
MOUNTAIN    BUILDING 

Our  everyday  experiences  lead  us  to  feel  that  nothing 
is  more  permanent  than  the  features  of  the  earth  upon 
which  we  live.  Great  cities  containing  costly  buildings 
are  built  by  the  water's  edge  with  the  expectation  that  the 
ocean  will  remain  where  it  is.  The  building  of  railroads 
and  canals,  and  the  establishment  of  industries  to  make 
the  earth  more  fruitful  and  better  adapted  to  our  use,  are 
based  upon  the  idea  that  the  mountains  and  valleys  with 
their  various  climates  will  not  change. 

The  study  of  history,  however,  makes  plain  the  fact  that 
at  different  times  in  the  past  certain  portions  of  the  earth 
have  been  visited  by  destructive  changes.  Cities  have 
been  shaken  down  by  earthquakes,  and  the  ocean  has 
swept  in  over  the  land,  drowning  thousands  of  people. 
Even  the  mountains,  which  stand  upon  broad  and  firm 
foundations,  sometimes  bring  disaster,  by  means  of  ava- 
lanches and  land-slides,  to  the  people  who  live  at  their  bases. 

The  truth  is  that  the  earth's  surface  is  everywhere 
slowly  and  quietly  changing ;  but  our  lives  are  so  short, 
and  the  history  of  even  the  oldest  cities  is  so  brief  in  com- 
parison with  the  rate  at  which  most  of  the  changes  take 
place,  that  we  as  a  rule  are  aware  of  only  the  uncommon 
and  sudden  ones. 

The  occurrence  of  earthquakes  establishes  the  unmistak- 
able fact  that  there  are  forces  at  work  from  within  disturb- 

50 


EARTHQUAKES   AND   MOUNTAIN    BUILDING  51 

ing  the  surface,  while  land-slides,  and  even  little  gullies 
washed  out  by  the  rain,  show  that  other  forces  are  working 
from  without. 

The  vibration  or  trembling  of  the  earth  which  we  call  an 
"earthquake"  always  arouses  alarm,  and  frequently  occa- 
sions great  destruction  and  loss  of  life.  Only  a  few  of  the 
various  causes  that  may  bring  about  earthquakes  are  as 
yet  fully  understood.  Earthquakes  are  very  interesting, 
however,  because  they  are  often  associated  with  the  birth 
and  growth  of  lofty  mountain  ranges. 

Volcanic  eruptions,  hot  springs,  and  the  high  tempera- 
ture which  exists  toward  the  bottom  of  deep  mines  show 
us  that  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  very  hot.  It  is  thought 
that  at  one  time  the  whole  earth  glowed  with  heat,  but  as 
ages  passed  it  became  cold  upon  the  outside  and  a  solid 
crust  was  formed. 

Every  one  has  observed  that  fruit  becomes  wrinkled  as 
the  pulp  within  dries  and  contracts.  The  materials  of 
the  earth  occupy  more  space  when  they  are  hot  than 
when  cold,  and  as  the  interior  portion  is  still  cooling,  the 
outer  layer  or  crust  continues  to  shrink  down  upon  it, 
forming  folds  or  wrinkles,  as  in  the  case  of  the  skin  of 
an  apple. 

There  is  probably  no  portion  of  the  surface  that  is  fixed 
in  its  present  position.  The  land  is  either  rising  or  sink- 
ing continually.  If  the  area  that  is  pushed  upward  is 
large,  it  becomes  a  plateau  ;  but  if  long  and  narrow  like 
a  wrinkle,  it  forms  a  mountain  range.  We  should  not 
be  aware  of  these  movements  in  many  cases  if  it  were 
not  for  the  horizontal  shelf  cut  upon  the  borders  of  the 
land  by  the  ocean  waves.  Along  some  coasts  old  wave- 
cut  cliffs  stand  hundreds  of  feet  above  the  present  ocean 


52  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

level.  Other  coasts  have  sunk,  so  that  the  water  has 
flooded  the  adjoining  land  and  made  a  new  shore  line. 

When  the  movements  of  the  land  are  sudden,  they  mani- 
fest themselves  to  us  through  earthquakes.  The  crust  of 
the  earth  is  not  so  flexible  as  the  skin  of  an  apple,  and 
when  the  strain  upon  it  becomes  too  great  it  suddenly 
breaks.  The  rock  walls  usually  slide  past  one  another 
along  such  a  fracture.  If  the  rising  wall  becomes  high 
enough  it  will  form  a  mountain  range. 

The  great  mountain  systems  border  the  oceans,  for  the 
lines  of  weakness  occur  where  the  land  dips  steeply  down 
beneath  the  water.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  frac- 
tures in  the  rocks  where  mountains  are  being  made  are 
situated  underneath  the  water,  or  in  some  position  where 
water  passes  down  through  them  in  large  quantities. 

What  do  you  think  would  happen  if  such  an  underground 
stream  of  water  came  in  contact  with  hot  or  molten  rocks 
far  below  the  surface  ?  Note  the  effect  produced  by  drops 
of  water  falling  upon  a  hot  stove.  Each  one,  as  it  strikes, 
is  partly  changed  to  steam  with  a  slight  explosive  sound. 
The  result  is  similar  when  water  is  turned  into  the  hot  and 
nearly  empty  boiler  of  a  steam-engine  —  an  explosion  is 
sure  to  follow. 

When  the  pressure  of  steam  suddenly  formed  within  the 
earth  is  too  great,  a  volcanic  explosion  takes  place  at  some 
point  where  the  overlying  rocks  are  weakest,  probably  on 
or  near  one  of  the  lines  of  fracture  about  which  we  have 
been  speaking.  The  explosion  is  accompanied  by  thunder- 
ing noises,  tremblings  of  the  earth,  and  the  hurling  of  rock 
and  molten  lava  into  the  air.  That  the  rocks  of  the  earth's 
crust  arc  elastic  is  shown  by  the  rebounding  of  a  pebble 
thrown  against  a  large  boulder.      If  a  file  be  drawn  across 


EARTHQUAKES   AND   MOUNTAIN    BUILDING  53 

the  edge  of  a  sheet  of  tin  upon  which  sand  has  been 
sprinkled,  the  tin  vibrates  over  its  whole  extent,  as  is 
shown  by  the  jumping  of  the  sand  grains.  Because  of 
like  elasticity  in  the  materials  which  make  up  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  the  vibrations  produced  by  an  explosion  are 
carried  through  the  solid  earth  for  hundreds  of  miles. 


V, 

:*-;-,  •  Mm 

Fig.  20.  —  Earthquake  Fissures  near  Mono  Lake,  California 

The  records  of  earthquakes  show  that  they  are  much 
more  violent  and  occur  oftener  where  the  crust  of  the 
earth  is  being  disturbed  by  folding.  We  have  seen  that 
there  are  two  main  causes  of  earthquakes  :  the  slipping 
of  portions  of  the  earth  past  each  other  along  a  fissure, 
and  the  contact  of  water  with  very  hot  rocks  far  below 
the  surface.  It  is  probable  that  the  earthquakes  which 
occur  so  often  in  the  western  portion  of  the  United  States 


54 


THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 


are  due  to  the  first  of  these  causes.  The  numerous 
extinct  volcanoes  show  that  at  one  period  this  region  was 
frequently  shaken  by  explosive  eruptions. 

Mono  Lake  (see  Fig.  42,  page  99),  at  the  eastern  base 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Range,  has  been  a  centre  for  explo- 


■MM 

■te 

AS  r/^ 

1  •'■ 

LXm 

Til  Im'IfiiMfrfo 

■ 

Fig.  21.  —  The  Wasatch  Range 
From  Salt  Lake  City 

sivc  eruptions,  which  were  extremely  violent  at  one  time. 
The  islands  which  rise  in  the  lake  are  shattered,  while 
Black  Point,  upon  the  northern  shore,  has  been  uplifted 
by  an  explosion  from  beneath,  which  split  the  rocks  apart 
and  formed  deep  fissures. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  in  the  Cordilleran  region 
the  mountains   have  been   increasing  in   height  in  very  re- 


EARTHQUAKES    AND    MOUNTAIN    BtJILDING         55 

cent  years.  We  might  almost  say  that  they  are  growing 
to-day.  In  this  region,  then,  we  can  actually  see  how 
mountains  are  made  ;  we  do  not  have  to  depend  upon  de- 
scriptions of  the  manner  in  which  they  are  supposed  to 
have  been  made  thousands  of  years  ago. 

Any  good    map  will  show    that   the  mountains  of    the 
Cordilleran  region    have    in    general    a    north   and    south 


Fig.  22. —  Bluff  formed  by  an  Earthquake 

At  the  foot  of  the  Wasatch  Range,  Utah 

direction.  Their  direction  was  determined  by  fissures 
formed  long  ago  in  the  crust  of  the  earth.  Movements 
have  continued  to  take  place  along  many  of  these  fissures 
up  to  the  present  time,  and  probably  will  continue  for 
some  time  to  come. 

In  order  to  become  better  acquainted  with  these  remark- 
able mountains,  let  us  examine  some  of  them,  taking  first 
the  Wasatch  Range  in  eastern  Utah.  The  range  has  an 
elevation  of  nearly  eleven  thousand  feet,  rising  gradually 


56  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

upon  the  eastern  side,  but  presenting  a  bold  and  pictu- 
resque front  upon  the  west,  toward  the  plain  of  Great  Salt 
Lake.  A  short  drive  from  Salt  Lake  City  brings  us  to 
the  foot  of  the  range,  at  the  mouth  of  Little  Cottonwood 
Canon. 

A  peculiar  bluff  which  extends  for  a  number  of  miles 
along  the  base  of  the  mountains  at  once  attracts  our  atten- 
tion. The  steep  face  of  the  bluff,  which  is  from  fifty  to 
seventy-five  feet  high,  appears  to  have  been  formed  by  a 
rising  of  the  land  upon  the  side  next  the  mountains,  or  a 
dropping  upon  the  valley  side.  There  are  reasons  for 
believing  that  the  formation  of  the  bluff  was  due  to  the 
occurrence  of  an  earthquake  some  time  within  the  last 
century.  The  bluff  is  closely  related  to  the  mighty  moun- 
tains behind  it.  It  was  formed  by  the  last  of  a  series  of 
movements  in  the  earth  which  raised  the  great  block 
known  as  the  Wasatch  Range  to  an  elevation  of  six  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  plains  at  its  base.  Is  it  to  be  won- 
dered at  that  disturbances  of  the  earth  which  result  in  the 
erection  of  mountains  of  such  height  are  frequently  so 
severe  as  to  destroy  the  strongest  buildings  ? 

Now  let  us  go  westward  across  the  various  parallel 
ranges  of  the  Great  Basin  to  Owens  Valley  at  the  eastern 
base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  This  is  the  high- 
est and  longest  continuous  mountain  range  in  the  United 
States.  For  a  distance  of  more  than  one  hundred  miles 
its  elevation  is  from  twelve  thousand  to  over  fourteen 
thousand  feet. 

Owens  Valley  was  in  1872  the  centre  of  one  of  the 
most  severe  and  extensive  earthquakes  ever  recorded 
in  the  United  States.  The  little  village  of  Lone  Pine, 
situated  in  the  valley  below   Mount  Whitney,  was   utterly 


5<S  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

demolished,  twenty  people  were  killed  and  many  injured. 
A  portion  of  the  valley  near  the  village  sank  so  low  that 
the  water  flowed  in  and  formed  a  lake  above  it.  The  land 
was  so  shaken  up  that  the  fields  of  one  man  were  thrust 
into  those  of  his  neighbor.  For  a  distance  of  several 
hundred  miles  to  the  north  along  the  base  of  the  moun- 
tains the  earth  was  fractured,  and  bluffs  from  ten  to  forty 
feet  high  were  formed  as  a  result  either  of  the  dropping  of 
the  surface  of  the  valley  upon  the  eastern  side,  or  of  the 
raising  of  the  mountains  upon  the  west. 

This  slipping  of  the  earth  which  gave  rise  to  the  earth- 
quake bluffs  was  the  most  recent  of  a  long  series  of 
similar  events  which  have  raised  the  precipitous  eastern 
wall  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  to  a  height  of  two 
miles  above  Owens  Valley.  If  you  will  go  out  into  the 
centre  of  the  valley  and  look  west  toward  the  mountains, 
you  will  see  three  bluffs  or  scarps.  The  first,  which  is 
twenty  feet  high,  was  made  at  the  time  of  the  last  earth- 
quake ;  the  second,  known  as  the  Alabama  Hills  and  rising 
about  four  hundred  feet,  was  formed  at  an  earlier  time  ;  the 
third,  rising  back  of  the  others,  is  that  of  the  main  Sierra. 

Similar  cliffs  appear  at  the  bases  of  other  ranges  of 
mountains  in  the  Great  Basin.  Springs  abound  along 
these  fractures  in  the  earth,  for  the  surface  waters  have 
an  opportunity  to  collect  wherever  the  rocks  are-  broken. 
Xumerous  fertile  valleys  mark  the  line  of  earthquake 
movements,  for  the  broken  rocks  and  abundant  springs 
favor  rapid  erosion. 

Among  the   Coast   Ranges  ol    California   there   appe 
a  series  of  fractures  in  the  earth  which  form  a  line  nearly 
tour  hundred  miles   long.      They  extend    from  a  point  near 
San   Bernardino   in  a  northwesterly  direction  to  the   neigh- 


EARTHQUAKES   AND   MOUNTAIN    BUILDING 


59 


borhood  of  San  Francisco.  Severe  earthquakes  have 
taken  place  along  this  line  since  the  country  was  settled. 
The  pressure  and  grinding  of  the  earth  upon  opposite  sides 
of  the  fissures  has  formed  long  low  ridges  of  earth.  Small 
valleys  have  been  blocked,  and  the  old  stage  road  from  Los 
Angeles  to  Bakersfield,  which  followed  the  course  of  the 
fissures  for  a  number  of  miles,  has  been  almost  obliterated. 


Fig.  24.  —  Elizabeth  Lake,  California 

Occupying  a  valley  primarily  due  to  earthquake  movements 

Hundreds  of  cliffs  and  mountain  scarps  throughout  the 
West  have  come  into  existence  as  the  results  of  movements 
such  as  we  have  been  describing.  Where  the  disturbances 
have  bee,n  recent  the  mountains  are  bold  and  picturesque. 
Those  produced  in  earlier  times  are  in  main  instances  so 
worn  away  that  it  is  difficult  to  tell  with  certainty  how 
they  were  made. 


THE    LAST   VOLCANIC    ERUPTIONS    IN   THE 
UNITED    STATES 

There  are  more  volcanoes  in  our  country  than  is  gener- 
ally supposed.  Some  are  very  small  and  some  rarik  among 
the  greatest  of  mountain  peaks,  but  all  together  there  are 
many  hundreds,  perhaps  thousands,  of  them.  At  present 
they  are  all  silent  and  apparently  dead.  We  are  accus- 
tomed to  speak  of  them  as  extinct  volcanoes,  but  of  this 
we  must  not  be  too  sure. 

They  stand  dark  and  cold,  giving  no  clue  to  the  nature 
of  the  forces  which  made  them,  except  perhaps  by  the 
presence  of  an  occasional  hot  spring  and  the  appearance 
of  the  rocks  of  which  they  are  composed.  The  slag-like 
character  of  these  rocks  we  have  learned  to  associate  with 
intense  heat.  Some  of  these  volcanoes  are  very  old  and 
have  been  nearly  worn  away  ;  others  are  new  and  almost  as 
perfect  as  when  they  were  first  made. 

Where  shall  we  go  to  find  these  volcanoes  ?  Are  there 
any  upon  the  Atlantic  coast  or  neighboring  highlands  ? 
Though  you  may  travel  over  all  that  portion  of  our  country, 
you  will  find  none,  although  you  will  discover  in  places,  as 
for  instance  in  the  palisades  of  the  Hudson,  lavas  which 
came  from  very  ancient  volcanoes,  worn  down  so  long  ago 
that  their  very  sites  are  lost  to  view. 

If  wc  search  the  Mississippi  basin  we  find  there  even 
fewer  traces  of  volcanic  action  than  upon  the  eastern  high- 
lands.    The  greater  portion  of  the  vast  area  embraced  by  the 

60 


VOLCANIC   ERUPTIONS   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES       6l 

Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries  has  had  a  very  unevent- 
ful history,  although  at  times  earthquakes  may  have  oc- 
curred and  the  sky  may  have  been  darkened  by  ashes  from 
eruptions  in  distant  parts  of  the  earth. 

It  is  in  the  country  west  of  the  Rockies,  the  region  last 
to  be  explored  and  settled,  that  the  objects  of  our  search 
come  to  light.     Here  are  volcanoes  and  lava  fields  so  ex- 


Fig.  25.  —  Fissure  in  the  Lava,  Shadow  Mountain 
The  groovings  in  the  lava  show  that  it  was  squeezed  out  in  a  half-solid  condition 

tensive  as  almost  to  bury  from  sight  the  older  surface  of 
the  earth.  Some  of  them  appear  as  if  but  yesterday  they 
had  been  glowing  with  heat. 

In  the  Cordilleran  region  Nature  has  carried  on  her 
work  with  a  master  hand.  She  has  lifted  the  earth's  crust 
to  form  a  great  plateau.  Portions  of  the  plateau  she  has 
broken,  projecting  the  fragments  upward    to    form    lofty 


62  THE    WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

mountains,  while  along  the  fissures  thus  created  she  has 
squeezed  out  fiery  molten  matter  from  the  interior  of  the 
earth.  This  molten  material  has  spread  out  in  fields  of  lava 
or  has  piled  itself  about  small  openings,  forming  volcanic 
cones,  which  in  some  cases  have  overtopped  the  loftiest  moun- 
tain ranges  of  the  continent.  It  is  believed  that  a  number 
of  these  volcanic  eruptions  have  occurred  in  the  Cordilleran 
region  of  the  United  States  since  the  discovery  of  America, 
and  that  one  took  place  within  the  lifetime  of  many  per- 
sons now  living. 

San  Francisco  Mountain,  in  northern  Arizona,  is  the  lof- 
tiest volcanic  peak  of  a  region  dotted  with  volcanoes  and 
lava  flows.  This  great  volcano,  like  most  of  its  neighbors, 
has  long  been  extinct,  although  a  few  miles  to  the  eastward 
there  appears  a  group  of  small  but  very  new  cones. 

A  ride  of  fifteen  miles  from  the  town  of  Flagstaff,  across 
the  forest-covered  plateau,  brings  us  to  Shadow  Mountain 
and  the  fields  of  lava  and  volcanic  sand  lying  at  its  base. 
The  mountain,  throughout  its  height  of  over  one  thousand 
feet,  is  a  conical  aggregate  of  loose  lapilli  which  give  way 
under  the  feet  and  make  climbing  the  peak  very  tiresome. 

The  lapilli  and  scoriae  are  slag-like  fragments  of  lava 
which  have  been  blown  out  of  the  throat  of  the  volcano 
while  in  a  hot  or  semi-molten  condition.  These  fragments, 
as  they  fall  back  to  the  earth,  collect  about  the  opening 
and  in  time  build  up  the  volcano,  or  cinder  cone,  as  such  a 
mountain  is  frequently  called.  The  finer  particles,  which 
have  the  appearance  of  dark  sand,  fall  farther  away  and 
form  a  layer  over  the  surface  for  some  miles  upon  every 
side.  These  products  of  an  explosive  volcano  are  some- 
times called  cinders  and  ashes,  because  of  their  resemblance 
to  the  slag  and  refuse  of  furnaces. 


VOLCANIC  ERUPTIONS  IN  THE  UNITED   STATES       63 

In  the  case  of  the  volcano  which  we  are  studying,  the 
lapilli  are  so  black  that  they  give  the  cone  the  aj  pearance 
of  being  darkened  by  the  shadow  of  a  clo'ud,  and  on  this 
account  the  peak  is  named  Shadow  Mountain.  As  the 
days  are  usually  bright  here,  the  shadow  effect  is  very 
striking. 


Fig.  26.  —  Edge  of  Lava  Field,  with  Pumice  in  in  1;  Foreground 

Near  Shadow  Mountain 


There  are  several  smaller  craters,  east  of  the  main  one, 
which  also  threw  out  volcanic  sand  and  lapilli.  The  sur- 
rounding hills  are  of  volcanic  origin,  although  very  much 
older  than  Shadow  Mountain.  These  hills  are  covered 
with   pine  forests  ;   but   trees  or  plants  have  gained  only 


64  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

slight  hold  upon  the  newer  surfaces  of  the  cinder  cones, 
which  present  a  picture  of  almost  complete  desolation. 

There  have  been  two  other  eruptions  since  the  making 
of  the  cinder  cones,  and  these  were  marked  by  flows  of 
molten  lava.  Although  the  rough  and  rugged  surface  of 
the  older  flow  has  not  yet  begun  to  crumble  and  form  soil, 
as  it  must  do  in  time,  yet  a  few  trees  are  found  here  and 
there,  reaching  their  roots  down  for  the  scanty  nourish- 
ment to  be  drawn  from  the  crevices  of  the  rocks. 

The  last  flow  of  lava,  which  was  very  small,  ran  into  a 
depression  in  the  other  flow  just  described.  This  lava 
appears  so  fresh  that  we  almost  expect  to  find  the  rocks 
still  warm.  What  a  contrast  between  the  wooded  hillside 
adjoining,  with  its  catpet  of  soft  volcanic  sand,  and  the 
jagged  surface  of  the  lava!  Care  must  be  taken  in  climb- 
ing over  the  lava,  for  the  sharp  points  and  angles  are 
ever  ready  to  tear  one's  shoes  and  hands.  It  cannot  be 
many  years  since  these  hard,  cold  rocks  formed  a  glowing 
mass  of  molten  matter  creeping  quietly  out  of  some  hidden 
fissure  which  reached  far  down  into  the  earth.  The  lava 
hardened  as  it  became  cold,  just  as  does  molten  iron  when 
led  from  the  furnace  to  make  a  casting. 

At  one  spot  in  the  lava  field  stand  the  remains  of  rude 
stone  houses  built  into  caverns  in  the  lava.  About  them 
are  scattered  pieces  of  broken  pottery.  These  rude 
dwellings  were  probably  occupied  by  some  of  the  pre- 
historic people  whose  homes  are  also  found  along  many 
of  the  streams,  and  in  the  caves  of  the  plateau  region. 
We  can  see  no  reason  for  their  coming  to  this  deso- 
late place,  so  far  from  a  water  supply,  unless  it  was 
that  the  rugged  lava  offered  some  protection  from  their 
enemies. 


VOLCANIC  ERUPTIONS   IN  THE  UNITED   STATES       65 

Now  let  us  imagine  ourselves  transported  to  northern 
California.  Near  Lassen  Peak,  the  southernmost  of  the 
great  volcanoes  of  the  Cascade  Range,  there  lies  another 
field  of  recent  volcanic  activity  of  even  greater  interest 
than  the  first.  The  centre  of  attraction  is  Cinder  Cone,  simi- 
lar to  Shadow  Mountain  in  its  manner  of  formation  as  well 
as  in  materials,  but  more  symmetrical  in  form.     Upon  one 


Fig.  27.  —  The  Crater  of  Cinder  Cone 

side  is  a  field  of  black  lava  several  miles  in  extent,  while 
volcanic  sand  has  been  spread  over  all  the  adjacent  country. 
As  nearly  as  can  be  determined,  only  a  little  more  than 
two  hundred  years  ago  the  valley  now  occupied  by  Cinder 
Cone  and  the  lava  fields  gave  no  indication  of  ever  be- 
coming a  new  centre  of  volcanic  action.  It  has  been 
thousands  of  years  since  the  ancient  volcanic  peaks  and 


66  THE    WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

cinder  cones  of  this  mountainous  region  became  extinct. 
The  glaciers  had  come,  and  torn  and  ground  away  the 
surface  of  the  lava,  and  afterward  dense  forests  had  hidden 
all  the  rocky  slopes,  while  lakes  had  occupied  many  of  the 
valleys.  Far  below,  however,  the  fires  had  not  gone  out. 
In  many  places  there  were  boiling  springs  from  which  the 
steam,  upon  cold  mornings,  rose  in  dense  white  clouds. 

Then,  for  some  reason  which  we  do  not  understand,  the 
forces  beneath  the  surface  increased  their  activity.  The 
force  of  the  steam  and  other  gases  was  too  great  to  be 
restrained,  and  at  a  weak  spot  in  the  overlying  rocks  they 
broke  through.  Molten  lava  accompanied  them,  and  a 
new  volcano  came  into  life  in  the  valley  where  Cinder 
Cone  now  raises  its  dark,  symmetrical  slopes. 

The  eruptions  were  violent.  With  explosive  force  the 
molten  lava  was  torn  into  fragments,  and  sand,  lapilli,  and 
bombs  were  hurled  out  into  the  air.  The  finer  particles 
were  carried  by  the  air  currents  far  over  the  surrounding 
country.  The  lapilli,  scoriae,  and  bombs  fell  around  the 
throat  of  the  volcano,  finally  building  up  the  cone  to  its 
present  proportions.  The  great  bombs,  some  of  them'  five 
feet  in  diameter,  are  among  the  most  remarkable  products 
of  this  eruption.  They  lie  scattered  about  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  cone,  and,  although 
they  are  often  irregular  in  shape,  they  might  almost  be 
mistaken  for  huge  cannon-balls.  The  eruption  killed  and 
burned  the  trees  in  the  near-by  forests,  burying  them 
under  six  or  seven  feet  of  fine  sand  or  ashes.  After  the 
cone  had  been  built  and  the  explosive  eruptions  had  nearly 
stopped,  a  stream  of  molten  lava  burst  from  the  base  o\ 
the  cone  and  filled  a  portion  of  the  valley. 

Now  followed  a  long  period  of  quiet.     Trees  began  t<« 


VOLCANIC  ERUPTIONS   IX  THE   UNITED  STATES      67 

grow  upon  the  sand  and  gradually  to  encroach  upon  the 
barren  wastes  about  Cinder  Cone.  It  appeared  as  if 
there  were  to  be  no  more  eruptions.  But  the  volcano 
was  only  resting.  At  about  the  time,  perhaps,  when  the 
gold  seekers  began  to  pour  across  the  continent  to  Cali- 
fornia, there  was  another  eruption ;  but  this  time  it  took 


Fig.  28.  — Cinder  Cone 

The  trees  were  killed  by  the  last  eruption  of  volcanic  ashes 

the  form  of  a  lava  flow  and  was  so  quiet  as  to  create  no 
disturbance  in  the  surrounding  country. 

A  stream  of  thick,  viscous  lava  flowed  slowly  out  of  an 
opening  at  the  southern  base  of  Cinder  Cone.  As  the 
lava  crept  down  the  gentle  slopes  of  the  valley,  it  crusted 
over,  forming  a  black,  slag-like  surface.  The  surface  was 
from  time  to  time  broken  up  and  mixed  with  the  softer 


68 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


portions  beneath,  so  that  the  movement  of  the  flow  was 
still  further  retarded.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  valley  the 
lava  occupied  a  portion  of  a  body  of  water  now  known  as 
Lake  Bidwell ;  its  rugged  front  made  a  dam  across  the 
valley  above,   forming  Snag   Lake.      The  stumps  of  the 


Fig.  29.  —  The  Last  Lava  Flow  in  the  United  States 

At  Cinder  Cone,  California.     It  formed  a  dam  across  a  valley,  thus  creating 

Snag  Lake 


trees  which  were  killed  by  the  water  when  the  lake  was 
fast  formed  are  still  standing. 

One's  feet  sink  deep  into  volcanic  sands,  and  walking 
is  tiresome.  The  lava  field  resulting  from  the  last  erup- 
tion is  free  from  sand,  but  its  rough  surface,  formed  of 
broken  blocks,  is  difficult  to  cross. 

A  few  charred  stumps  rise  out  of  the  sand,  pathetic 
remnants   of   the   forest   trees  that   were    growing  at  the 


VOLCANIC  ERUPTIONS   IN  THE  UNITED   STATES       69 

time  of  the  first  eruption.  Most  of  the  trees  have  com- 
pletely disappeared,  leaving  shallow  pits  where  they  once 
stood. 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  climb  the  cone,  which 
rises  over  six  hundred  feet,  for  the  slopes,  composed  of 
loose  lapilli,  are  so  steep  that  one  slips  back  at  every  step 
nearly  as  far  as  he  advances.  From  the  summit  a  remark- 
able sight  meets  the  eye.  Within  the  rim  of  the  main 
crater  is  a  second  crater  with  a  rim  nearly  as  high  as  the 
first,  while  the  cavity  within  has  a  depth  of  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty  feet. 

Because  of  the  loose  character  of  the  material  of  which 
it  is  built,  no  streamlets  have  yet  worn  channels  down  the 
slopes  of  Cinder  Cone,  and  except  for  the  presence  of  two 
small  bushes  which  cling  to  its  side,  it  is  just  as  bare 
and  perfect  in  form  as  when  first  completed. 

Little  by  little  the  forests  are  encroaching  upon  the 
sand-covered  slopes  about  the  cone,  and  in  time  these 
slopes,  the  black  fields  of  lava,  and  the  cone  itself,  will  be 
covered  with  forests  like  the  older  lava  fields  and  cinder 
cones  which  appear  upon  every  hand. 


THE  MUD  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  COLORADO 

DESERT 

The  Colorado  Desert  is  a  strange,  weird  region.  Here 
is  a  vast  basin  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  California  which 
was  once  a  part  of  the  gulf,  but  is  now  separated  from  it 
by  the  delta  of  the  Colorado  River.  With  the  drying  up 
of  the  water,  the  centre  of  the  basin  was  left  a  salt  marsh 
more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  below  the  level  of 
the  ocean.  In  summer  the  air  quivers  under  the  blazing 
sun,  and  it  seems  as  if  no  form  of  life  could  withstand  the 
scorching  heat,  but  in  winter  the  atmosphere  is  cool  and 
full  of  life-giving  energy. 

Around  this  desert  rise  the  mountains,  some  old  and 
nearly  worn  down,  their  tops  barely  rising  out  of  the  long 
slopes  of  sand  and  gravel ;  others  rugged  and  steep,  lift- 
ing their  crests  far  above  the  burning  desert  into  the  cold, 
clear  sky. 

Curious  forms  of  plants  and  animals  find  their  homes 
upon  the  slopes  about  the  basin,  where  they  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  heat  and  dryness.  But  toward  the  centre  the 
soil  is  bare  clay,  for  when  the  water  dried  up  so  much  alkali 
and  salt  were  left  that  nothing  could  grow. 

However  we  do  not  now  intend  to  study  the  plants  or  the 
animals,  interesting  though  they  are,  but  rather  a  group  of 
mud  volcanoes,  which  forms  almost  the  only  relief  in  the 
monotony  <>l  the  bare  plain.  These  volcanoes  are  in  no 
way  related  i<>  real  volcanoes  except  in  shape,  for  water 

7o 


MUD  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  COLORADO  DESERT   71 


and  mud,  instead  of  fire  and  lava,  have  been  concerned  in 
their  building. 

Once  it  required  a  long  journey  in  wagons  or  upon 
horseback  to  reach  the  mud  volcanoes,  but  now  the  rail- 
road takes  us  within  three  miles  of  the  spot.  We  alight 
from  the  train  before  a  section  house  which  stands  in  the 


Fig.  30.  —  Mud  Volcanoes,  Colorado  Desert 


midst  of  the  great  desert.  Far,  far  away  stretches  the 
barren  clay  floor  of  the  ancient  lake.  Here  and  there  are 
scattered  stunted  shrubs,  the  only  specimens  of  plant  life 
which  have  been  able  to  withstand  the  alkali  in  the  clay. 
Seen  from  the  station,  the  volcanoes  appear  like  dark 
specks  almost  upon  the  horizon,  but  in  reality  they  are 
not  far  away,  and  an  hour's  brisk  walk  will  bring  us  to 
them.     The  mud  springs,  which  are  scattered  over  an  area 


72  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

of  several  hundred  acres,  present  many  strange  and  inter- 
esting features.  There  are  holes  in  the  earth  with  bub- 
bling mud  at  the  bottom,  cones  from  the  tops  of  which 
streams  of  muddy  water  issue,  and  ponds  of  mud,  in  some 
cases  as  thick  as  molasses,  in  others  thin  and  watery. 
There  are  little  jets  of  steam,  strange  odors,  and  a  vista 
of  many  mingled  colors.  Taken  altogether,  it  is  a  place 
quite  different  from  any  other  that  we  have  ever  seen. 

The  ground  is  soft  and  marshy,  and  in  some  places 
undermined  by  the  water,  so  that  we  have  to  take  great 
care  in  walking  about.  Some  of  the  smaller  springs 
occupy  round  depressions,  sometimes  three  or  four  feet 
across,  which  look  as  if  they  had  been  made  by  pressing 
a  large  pan  down  into  the  clay.  The  bubbling  mud  in  the 
bottom  of  the  pan,  as  well  as  the  hot  water  in  many  of  the 
springs,  makes  it  easy  to  imagine  that  we  are  standing 
upon  the  top  of  a  great  cooking  stove  in  which  a  hot  fire 
is  burning.  As  the  gas  with  which  the  water  is.  impreg- 
nated comes  up  through  the  mud,  it  forms  huge  bubbles 
which  finally  break  and  settle  down,  only  to  rise  again. 
In  this  way  concentric  mud  rings,  perfect  in  form,  are 
made  to  cover  the  entire  surface  of  the  pool. 

Where  there  is  little  water,  the  surface  of  the  mud 
hardens  and  leaves  a  small  opening,  through  which  the 
bubbling  gas  throws  small  columns  of  mud  at  regular 
intervals.  From  the  large  pools,  some  of  which  are  forty 
to  fifty  feet  in  diameter,  there  comes  a  low  murmuring 
sound  like  the  boiling  of  many  kettles.  The  water  is 
sputtering  and  bubbling,  and  in  some  places  it  is  hot 
enough  to  give  off  thin  clouds  of  steam.  Occasionally 
we  get  whiffs  of  sulphur,  while  about  the  borders  of  some 
of  the  ponds  pretty  crystals  of  this  mineral  can  be  found. 


MUD  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  COLORADO  DESERT   73 

More  commonly  the  pools  are  crusted  about  with  a 
white  deposit  of  salt,  for  they  all  contain  more  or  less  of 
this  substance  in  solution.  Around  a  few  of  the  pools  the 
mud  is  stained  with  the  red  tinge  of  iron,  and  red  lines 
mark  the  paths  of  the  streams  as  they  run  off  from  the 
pools  toward  the  still  lower  portions  of  the  desert. 


Fig.  31.  —  Pot-holes 


The  built-up  cones  or  volcanoes  appear  in  every  stage, 
from  the  little  ones  a  few  inches  high  to  the  patriarchs, 
which  in  some  cases  have  reached  a  height  of  twelve  feet. 
These  cones  are  formed  by  the  hardening  and  piling  up  of 
mud  about  the  openings ;  but  when  they  have  reached  the 
height  mentioned,  the  passages  up  through  their  centres, 
corresponding  in  each  case  to  the  throat  of  a  real  volcano, 


74 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


become  clogged  and  new  holes  are  formed  in  the  mud  at 
the  base. 

Many  of  these  mud  volcanoes  closely  resemble  true  vol- 
canoes in  form  and  structure.     The  mud  which  pours  out 

at  the  top  forms 
streams  down  the 
slopes  very  like 
those  of  molten 
lava.  New  cones 
are  built  upon 
the  sides  or  at 
the  bases  of  the 
old  ones  in  much 
the  same  way  as 


are  those  in  the 
volcanic  regions. 
There  are  no 
signs  of  volcanic 
action  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  these 
mud  springs,  and 
it  is  likely  that 
the  water  is 
forced  to  the 
surface  by  large 
quantities  of  gas 
produced  by  chemical  changes  taking  place  deep  within 
the  clay  beds  of  the  old  lake.  Similar  springs  occur  farther 
south,  nearer  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  River,  in  the 
Yellowstone  Park,  and  near  Lassen  Peak,  but  nowhere  in 
America  except  in  the  Colorado  desert  have  they  formed 
such  large  and  interesting  mounds. 


Fig.  32.  —  An  Extinct  Mud  Volcano 
With  small  active  one  at  its  side 


THE    HISTORY  OF   A   COAST    LINE 

The  story  of  our  Pacific  coast  reads  more  like  a  tale 
from  the  "  Arabian  Nights  "  than  like  a  plain  statement 
of  events  which  have  actually  happened. 

The  meeting  place  of  the  land  and  ocean  is  not  really 
so  permanent  a  line  as  it  appears.  The  shore  has 
been  continually  moving  back  and  forth  throughout  the 
long  history  of  the  earth.  That  which  was  dry  land  at 
one  time  was  at  another  time  deeply  buried  beneath  the 
ocean.  The  Pacific  border  seems  never  to  have  been  at 
rest.  It  has  risen  and  sunk  again  repeatedly.  It  has 
been  squeezed,  folded,  and  broken,  shaken  by  earthquakes, 
and  disturbed  by  volcanic  eruptions. 

One  might  be  led  to  think  from  this  statement  that  it 
would  not  be  safe  to  live  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  that  both 
animals  and  men  would  shun  the  region.  The  fact  is, 
however,  that  these  changes  usually  come  to  pass  so  very 
slowly  that  we  are  not  aware  of  them.  Severe  earthquakes 
and  volcanic  disturbances  take  place  so  rarely  in  compari- 
son with  the  length  of  a  man's  life,  that  we  may  pass 
our  whole  lives  without  experiencing  any  of  these  violent 
disturbances.  The  Pacific  coast  region,  with  its  forest- 
covered  mountains,  fertile  valleys,  and  beautiful  homes, 
presents  so  quiet  and  peaceful  an  appearance  that  it  is 
difficult  to  believe  that  parts  of  its  history  have  been  so 
tumultuous. 

Perhaps  you  will  ask  how  we  can  know  so  much  about 


y6  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

the  past.  It  is  true  that  no  one  was  here  to  witness  the 
events  which  are  supposed  to  have  taken  place.  But 
Nature  has  left  a  record  of  her  doings  which  we  have  only 
to  see  and  understand  in  order  to  learn  with  certainty 
many  things  which  happened  in  the  far  distant  past. 

Too  many  of  us  go  through  life  seeing  and  understand- 
ing almost  as  little  of  the  world  about  us  as  if  we  were 
blind.  Our  early  ancestors  were  obliged  to  understand 
many  things  about  Nature  and  to  cultivate  clear  and  close 
observation  for  the  sake  of  self-preservation.  The  very 
life  of  the  savage  depends  upon  the  training  of  his  eyes. 
He  must  be  able  to  tell  the  meaning  of  a  distant  object  or 
an  indistinct  trail,  for  his  enemies  may  have  passed  that 
way  recently.  If  we  could  bring  the  sharp  eyes  of  the 
savage  to  our  aid,  the  world  would  mean  much  more  to  us. 

In  order  to  learn  something  of  the  history  of  the  Pacific 
shore  line,  we  must  see  what  the  waves  are  doing  at  the 
present  time.  The  projecting  points  of  land  are  being 
worn  away  (Fig.  33).  The  waves  form  the  cliffs  against 
which  they  beat,  and  sometimes,  as  they  eat  their  way 
slowly  into  the  land,  they  cut  off  portions  and  leave  them 
standing  alone  as  islands. 

The  pebbles  and  boulders  (Fig.  34)  were  once  angular 
fragments  torn  from  the  cliff.  They  have  been  washed 
about  and  hurled  against  the  solid  rock  until  they  have 
been  worn  smooth  ;  and  the  cliff  in  turn  has  had  a  cave 
ground  out  at  its  base.  Above  the  lower  cave  there  is  a 
remnant  of  a  second  one,  with  pebbles  upon  its  floor.  This 
was  made  when  the  land  stood  ten  feet  lower  than  at 
present. 

As  the  waves  wear  away  the  loose  earth  and  the  solid 
rock  below  it,  moving  the  cliffs  inland,  they  leave  a   com- 


THE    HISTORY   OF   A   COAST    LINE 


77 


paratively  smooth  surface  which  is  partly  exposed  at  low 
tide.  The  fact  that  this  surface  is  not  marked  by  stream 
channels,  as  is  the  land,  helps  us  to  realize  the  great  differ- 
ence between  the  irregular  surface  of  the  latter  and  the 
plain-like  character  of  the  ocean  floor. 

Along  the  whole  coast  of  California  there  are  many  old 
sea  beaches  and  cliffs  which  the  waves    abandoned  long 


Fig.  33. —  Point  Buchon,  California 
The  waves  are  eating  their  way  into  the  land 


ago 


The  highest  of  these  beaches  lies  so  far  up  the 
slopes  of  the  mountains  bordering  the  ocean  that  it  makes 
us  wonder  what  the  geography  of  California  could  have 
been  like  when  the  region  was  so  deeply  submerged. 

The  lowest  and  newest  terrace  is  the  one  shown  in  Fig. 
35,  ten  feet  above  the  ocean.  Each  succeeding  terrace 
is  less  distinct,  and  the  highest,  fourteen  hundred  feet  in 
elevation,  can  now  be  distinguished  in  only  a  few  places. 


78 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


Where  the  old  sea  cliffs  are  best  preserved  they  form  a 
series  of  broad,  flat  steps,  rising  one  above  the  other.  Each 
bench,  or  terrace  as  it  is  commonly  called,  is  a  part  of  an 
old  plain  cut  out  of  the  land  by  the  waves  when  the  ocean 
stood  at  that  level.  The  steeper  slope  rising  at  the  back 
is  the  remnant  of  the  cliff  against  which  the  waves  used  to 


Fig.  34.  —  Ocean  Cave  at  Low  Tide 
Pebbles  of  a  former  beach  are  seen  above 


beat.  If  we  are  fortunate,  we  shall  find  at  its  base  some 
water-worn  pebbles  and  possibly  a  few  fragments  of  sea- 
shells.  The  crumbling  of  the  rocks  and  the  erosive  action 
of  the  rills  are  fast  destroying  the  old  cliffs,  so  that  in  many 
places  they  have  entirely  disappeared. 

Upon  the  seaward  face  of  San  Pedro  Hill,  in  southern 
California,  there  are  eleven  terraces,  rising  to  a  height  of 
twelve    hundred    feet.      What  an    interesting;    record   this 


THE   HISTORY   OF   A   COAST   LINE 


79 


shows!  Long  ago  the  land  stood  twelve  hundred  feet 
lower  than  at  present,  and  the  waves  beat  about  San  Pedro 
Hill,  nearly  submerging  it.  Then  the  land  began  to  rise, 
but  stopped  after  a  time,  and  the  waves  cut  a  terrace.  The 
upward  movement  was  continued,  with  repeated  intervals 
of  rest,  until  the  land  stood  higher  than  it  does  now. 


Fig.  35.  —  Wave-cut  Terra*  i  s 
Point  San  Pedro,  California 


North  of  San  Francisco  there  stands  a  terrace  fourteen 
hundred  feet  above  the  ocean.  Numerous  terraces  appear 
along  the  Oregon  coast,  but  those  in  Washington  are  not 
as  high  as  those  in  California.  It  is  probable  that  the 
land  in  this  region  was  not  so  deeply  submerged. 

The  ancient  shore  lines  of  British  Columbia  and  Alaska 
are  now  deeply  buried  beneath  the  ocean,  as  those  of  Cali- 


80  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

fornia  once  were.  The  fiords,  so  common  in  these  coun- 
tries, are  old  river  valleys  which  have  been  drowned  by 
the  sinking  of  the  land.  The  islands  were  once  portions 
of  the  coast  mountains,  but  have  been  cut  off  by  the  same 
process. 

Let  us  picture  in  our  minds  the  changes  in  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  which 
must  have  been  made  by  a  sinking  of  the  land  to  a  depth 
of  only  six  hundred  feet.  We  will  begin  upon  the  north, 
at  the  Strait  of  Fuca. 

Puget  Sound  once  opened  to  the  south  as  well  as  to  the 
north,  so  that  the  Olympic  Mountains  formed  an  island. 
The  broad  and  fertile  Willamette  Valley  was  but  an  arm 
of  the  sea,  somewhat  like  Puget  Sound  to-day.  The  body 
of  water  which  once  filled  this  valley  has  been  called  Wil- 
lamette Sound.  The  ocean  overspread  the  low  Oregon 
coast,  and  reached  far  up  the  valleys  of  the  Umpqua 
and  Rogue  rivers.  But  the  boundaries  of  the  Klamath 
Mountains  were  not  greatly  changed,  for  in  many  places 
they  rise  quite  abruptly  from  the  present  shore  line. 

All  the  large  valleys  of  California  were  flooded,  includ- 
ing the  San  Joaquin-Sacramento  valley,  which  was  then  a 
great  sound,  open  to  the  ocean  in  the  region  of  the  present 
Strait  of  Carquinez.  The  Coast  range  was  broken  up 
into  islands  and  peninsulas.  The  islands  off  the  coast  of 
southern  California  are  high  and  therefore  were  not  en- 
tirely submerged.  The  Gulf  of  California  spread  over 
the  Colorado  Desert,  while  from  the  west  the  water  pene- 
trated inland  over  the  plain  of  Los  Angeles  to  a  point 
beyond  San  Bernardino,  so  that  at  the  San  Gorgonio  pass 
only  a  narrow  neck  of  land  connected  the  San  Jacinto 
Mountains  and  the  Peninsula  Range  with  the  mainland. 


THE    HISTORY   OF  A   COAST    LINE  8 1 

If  California  had  been  inhabited  at  this  time,  the  state 
would  not  have  been  noted  for  orchards  and  grain-fields, 
but  rather  for  its  mineral  wealth.  There  would  have  been 
comparatively  little  low  land  fit  for  cultivation,  but  the 
mountains,  where  almost  all  the  precious  metals  are  found, 
would  have  appeared  nearly  as  they  do  to-day. 

The  surface  of  the  earth  may  be  divided  into  the  ocean 
basins  and  the  continental  masses  which  rise  above  them, 
but  we  must  not  make  the  mistake  of  thinking  that  the 
shore  line  always  corresponds  with  the  border  of  the  con- 
tinental masses.  We  have  learned  that  the  land  is  almost 
always  moving  slowly  up  or  down,  so  that  the  shore  is 
continually  changing  back  and  forth.  At  one  time  the 
shore  line  may  be  far  within  the  borders  of  the  continent, 
as  we  have  seen  was  once  the  case  upon  our  Pacific  coast ; 
at  another  time,  if  the  land  should  rise,  the  shore  line  might 
coincide  with  the  real  border  of  the  continent.  By  the 
real  border  of  the  continent  we  mean  the  line  along  which 
the  earth  slopes  down  steeply  to  the  abysmal  depths  of  the 
ocean. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  outside  the  present  shore 
line  of  California  there  is  a  submerged  strip  of  the  con- 
tinent varying  from  ten  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in 
width.  This  strip  of  land  is  like  a  bench  upon  the  side 
of  the  continent,  and  is  known  as  the  continental  plateau. 
The  water  over  the  plateau  is  comparatively  shallow. 
Upon  one  side  the  land  rises,  while  upon  the  other  there 
is  a  rapid  descent  into  the  deep  Pacific.  The  surface  of 
the  plateau  is  in  general  fairly  smooth,  but  in  places 
mountains  lift  their  summits  above  the  water  and  form 
islands. 

There  was  a  time,  thousands  of  years  earlier  than  the 


82  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

period  when  California  was  so  nearly  covered  by  the 
waters  of  the  Pacific,  when  this  land  stood  far  higher  than 
it  does  now.  The  coast  line  was  then  much  farther  west, 
near  the  border  of  the  submarine  plateau.  The  Santa 
Barbara  Islands  at  that  time  formed  a  mountain  range 
upon  the  edge  of  the  continental  land.  This  fact  was 
established  by  the  discovery  upon  one  of  the  islands  of 
a  large  number  of  bones  of  an  extinct  American  elephant. 
These  animals  could  have  reached  the  submerged  moun- 
tains only  at  a  time  when  there  was  dry  land  between  them 
and  the  present  shore  line.  We  should  like  to  know  how 
it  came  about  that  these  bones  were  left  where  they  are. 
Perhaps  the  land  sank  so  suddenly  that  the  water  cut  the 
elephants  off  from  the  mainland  and  compelled  them  to 
spend  the  remainder  of  their  lives  upon  these  islands. 

While  the  land  stood  so  high,  some  of  the  larger  streams 
wore  deep  channels  across  what  is  now  the  submarine  pla- 
teau. These  channels  have  been  discovered  by  soundings 
made  from  the  ships  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey. 
The  largest  of  the  submerged  valleys  extends  through 
the  Bay  of  Monterey,  and  runs  so  close  to  the  shore  that 
it  has  offered  a  favorable  location  for  a  wharf. 

Before  the  buried  valleys  upon  the  northern  coast  of 
California  were  all  known,  the  presence  of  one  of  them  led 
to  the  wreck  of  a  ship.  The  shore  was  obscured  by  fog, 
but  the  soundings  made  by  the  sailors  showed  deep  water 
and  led  them  to  believe  they  were  a  long  distance  from 
land,  when  suddenly  the  ship  drifted  in  upon  the  rocks. 

The  last  significant  movement  of  the  land  of  the  Pacific 
border  was  a  downward  one.  It  flooded  the  mouths  of  the 
streams  and  formed  all  the  large  harbors  which  are  of 
so  great  commercial  importance. 


THE   HISTORY   OF   A   COAST   LINE  83 

San  Francisco  Bay  occupies  a  great  stretch  of  lowland 
at  the  meeting  of  several  valleys  of  the  Coast  Ranges 
and  forms  the  outlet  for  the  most  important  drainage 
system  of  California.  If  this  region  had  been  settled 
before  the  subsidence  of  the  land  which  let  in  the  ocean 
through  the  Golden  Gate,  how  the  farmers  would  have 
lamented  the  flooding  of  their  fertile  lands !  But  we  can 
understand  how  small  the  loss  would  have  been,  compared 


Fig.  36.  —  Island  rounded  by  a  Glacier 
Near  Anacortes,  Puget  Sound 

with  the  advantages  to  be  gained  from  the  magnificent 
harbor  which  now  exists  here.  If  the  land  had  not  sunk 
the  history  of  the  Pacific  coast  would  have  been  far 
different. 

Puget  Sound,  another  very  important  arm  of  the  ocean, 
is  also  a  submerged  valley,  but  it  has  had  an  entirely 
different  history  from  that  of  San  Francisco  Bay.  The 
valley  was  at  one  time  occupied  by  a  great  glacier  which 


84 


THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 


came  down  from  the  Cascade  Range  and  moved  north- 
west through  the  Ground  and  into  the  Strait  of  Juan 
de  Fuca,  scouring  agjd  polishing  the  rocks  over  which  it 
passed.  A  little  island  near  Anacortes  (Fig.  36)  has  been 
rounded  by  the  action  of  the  ice  into  a  form  like  a  whale's 
back. 

The  sinking  of  the  land  flooded  the  lower  Columbia 
River  and  the  mouth  of  the  Willamette,  so  that  ocean  ships 


Fig.  37. — An  Abandoned  Ocean  Cuff 
Southern  California 

may  now  go  up  as  far  as  Portland.  The  currents  and 
waves  soon  threw  up  bars  across  the  mouths  of  the  smaller 
streams,  and  formed  lagoons  behind  them.  Ships  fre- 
quently have  difficulty  in  entering  many  of  the  harbors 
because  of  the  sand  bars  which  have  been  built  up  part 
way  to  the  surface  of  the  water. 


THE    HISTORY    OK   A   COAST    LINE 


85 


It  is  thought  that  along  some  portions  of  the  coast  there 
has  recently  been  a  slight  upward  movement  of  the  land. 
Figure  37  shows  a  bit  of  California  coast,  near  San  Juan, 
where  the  Santa  Fe  railroad  has  laid  its  tracks  for  several 
miles  along  a  strip  of  abandoned  beach,  at  the  base  of  a 
cliff  against  which  the  waves  once  beat. 


Fig.  38.  —  Limestone  Cliff,  Quatsino  Sound,  Vancouver  Island 

At  the  northern  end  of  Vancouver  island  there  is  a  deep 
arm  of  the  ocean  called  Quatsino  Sound.  A  limestone 
cliff  upon  the  shore  of  this  sound  (Fig.  $S)  has  been 
undermined  by  the  dissolving  of  the  limestone,  but  now 
the  water  lacks  three  feet  of  rising  to  the  notch  which 
it  recently  formed. 


THE    DISCOVERY    OF   THE  COLUMBIA   RIVER 

The  influence  exerted  by  the  various  features  of  the 
land  and  water  upon  the  settlement  of  a  new  region  are 
not  always  fully  appreciated.  If  the  entrance  to  San 
Francisco  Bay  had  been  broader  and  more  easily  discerned 
by  the  early  navigators  who  sailed  past  it,  and  if  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  River  had  not  been  obscured  by  lowlands 
and  a  line  of  breakers  upon  the  bar,  the  history  of  western 
America  would  prooably  have  been  very  different. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  prospect  seemed  to  be 
that  Spain  would  control  the  Pacific  Ocean.  She  claimed, 
by  right  of  discovery,  all  the  lands  bordering  upon  this 
ocean  and  the  exclusive  right  to  navigate  its  waters. 
Every  vessel  found  there  without  license  from  the  court 
of  Spain  was,  by  royal  decree,  to  be  confiscated. 

It  is  interesting,  after  all  these  years  and  with  our 
present  knowledge,  to  look  back  and  see  how  unreasonable 
were  the  claims  of  Spain.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the 
extent  of  the  Pacific  ocean  was  not  known.  In  fact,  men's 
ideas  as  to  the  distribution  of  land  and  water  over  the 
earth  were  so  indefinite  that  it  was  at  first  supposed  that 
the  islands  which  Columbus  discovered  belonged  to  the 
East  Indies. 

The  claims  of  Spain  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  were  based 
upon  its  discovery  by  Balboa,  but  she  never  made  any 
serious  efforts  to  enforce  them,  for  the  attempt  would  have 
involved  her  in  war  with  all  the  maritime  nations  of  Europe. 

86 


THE   DISCOVERY    OF   THE   COLUMBIA    RIVER        87 

Spain  lacked  the  ability  to  take  advantage  of  the  great 
discoveries  which  her  navigators  and  explorers  had  made, 
and  for  that  reason  she  merely  looked  on,  though  with 
jealous  eyes,  when  in  the  eighteenth  century  the  ships  of 
England,  France,  Holland,  and  Russia  entered  the  Pacific 
Ocean  with  a  view  to  exploration  and  conquest. 

Determined  at  last  to  support  their  claim  to  the  Pacific 
coast  of  North  America,  the  Spaniards  began  to  realize  the 
necessity  of  exploring  it  more  fully  and  of  founding  settle- 
ments. It  was  their  plan  to  take  possession  of  the  whole 
region  between  Mexico  upon  the  south  and  the  Russian 
trading  posts  along  the  shores  of  Alaska.  As  exploration 
by  land  was  impossible  because  of  mountain  ranges  and 
deserts,  the  Spanish  adventurers  were  forced  to  rely  upon 
the  ocean,  with  all  its  uncertainties  of  storm  and  contrary 
winds. 

Between  1774  and  1779  voyages  were  made  as  far  north 
as  Queen  Charlotte's  Island,  in  latitude  540.  A  station  was 
established  and  held  for  many  years  at  Nootka  Sound, 
upon  the  west  coast  of  Vancouver  Island.  The  first  ex- 
pedition passed  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca  apparently 
without  seeing  it,  although  there  was  a  rumor  to  the  effect 
that  a  broad  opening  into  the  land  had  been  discovered  by 
a  certain  Juan  de  Fuca  in  1592,  while  he  was  exploring 
in  the  employ  of  Spain.  The  latitude  of  this  opening,  as 
he  gave  it,  nearly  corresponds  to  that  of  the  strait  which 
now  bears  his  name. 

For  many  years  the  attempt  to  discover  a  passage 
around  the  northern  part  of  America  engaged  the  early 
navigators  upon  both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans. 
Their  desire  to  find  an  easy  route  to  India  spurred  them  to 
constant  effort.     For  a  time   it  was  believed  that  such  an 


88  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

opening  actually  existed,  and  mariners  went  so  far  as  to  give 
it  a  name,  calling  it  the  Straits  of  Anian.  The  reputed 
discoveries  of  Juan  de  Fuca  materially  strengthened  the 
general  belief  in  a  passage  to  the  northward  of  America. 

Vizcaino,  in  his  voyage  of  1603,  reached  latitude  430 
north  and  thought  that  he  had  discovered  a  great  river 
flowing  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  This  opening,  although 
south  of  the  point  supposed  to  have  been  reached  by  Juan 
de  Fuca,  was  believed  for  a  time  to  be  the  entrance  to  the 
long-sought  Straits  of  Anian.  During  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century  California  was  represented  upon 
the  Spanish  maps  as  an  island  having  Cape  Blanco,  which 
Vizcaino  discovered  and  named,  as  its  northern  point,  and 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  an  extension  of  the  Gulf 
of  California  northward. 

To  return  now  to  the  Spanish  explorations,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century  we  find  that  Heceta,  fol- 
lowing the  first  expedition,  succeeded  in  getting  as  far  as 
Vancouver  Island,  where,  having  been  parted  from  an 
accompanying  ship  by  a  storm,  he  turned  southward,  pass- 
ing the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca  and  keeping  close  by  the 
shore.  In  latitude  460  17'  he  found  an  opening  in  the 
coast  from  which  a  strong  current  issued.  He  felt  sure 
that  he  had  discovered  the  mouth  of  some  large  river. 
Upon  the  later  Spanish  maps  this  was  called  Heceta's 
Inlet,  or  River  of  San  Roque.  A  glance  at  the  map  will 
show  how  closely  the  latitude  given  corresponds  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river  which  was  discovered  later  by  Captain 
Gray  and  named,  after  his  ship,  the  Columbia. 

A  short  time  before  Heceta's  discovery,  Captain  Jona- 
than Carver  of  Connecticut  set  out  on  an  exploring  tour, 
partly   for  the   purpose   of    determining  the  width   of    the 


THE    DISCOVERY   OF   THE   COLUMBIA    RIVER        89 

continent  and  the  nature  of  the  Indian  inhabitants.  He 
mentions  four  great  rivers  rising  within  a  few  leagues  of 
one  another,  "The  river  Bourbon  (Red  River  of  the  North) 
which  empties  itself  into  Hudson's  Bay,  the  waters  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  the  Mississippi,  and  the  river  Oregon,  or 
River  of  the  West,  that  falls  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  at  the 
Straits  of  Anian."  Carver's  descriptions  are  fanciful,  and 
it  is  not  likely  that  he  ever  saw  the  river  which  is  now 
known  as  the  Columbia,  although  there  is  a  possibility 
that  he  heard  stories  from  the  Indians  of  a  great  river 
upon  the  western  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in- 
vented for  it  the  name  Oregon. 

In  1787  Meares,  an  English  trader,  visited  the  coast, 
and  sailing  southward  from  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca, 
attempted  to  find  the  river  San  Roque  as  it  was  laid  down 
upon  the  Spanish  charts.  Reaching  the  proper  latitude, 
Meares  rounded  a  promontory  and  found  behind  it  a  bay 
which  he  was  unable  to  enter  because  of  a  continuous  line 
of  breakers  extending  across  it.  He  became  satisfied  that 
there  was  no  such  river  as  the  San  Roque,  and  named  the 
promontory  Cape  Disappointment  and  the  bay  Deception 
Bay.  If  Meares  had  entered  the  bay  through  the  breakers, 
the  English  would  undoubtedly  have  made  good  their 
claim  to  the  discovery  of  the  Columbia  River. 

After  the  Revolution,  American  trading  ships  began  to 
extend  their  operations  into  the  North  Pacific.  In  1787 
two  such  vessels  left  Boston,  one  of  them  under  command 
of  a  Captain  Gray.  After  reaching  the  Pacific,  the  ships 
were  parted  during  a  storm,  and  Captain  Gray  finally 
touched  the  American  coast  near  the  forty-sixth  degree  of 
north  latitude.  For  nine  days  he  tried  to  enter  an  open- 
ing which  was  in  all    probability  the   one    attempted    by 


90  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

Meares.  After  nearly  losing  his  ship  and  suffering  an 
Indian  attack,  he  sailed  north  to  Nootka  Sound. 

Captain  Gray  returned  to  Boston,  but  in  1790  started 
upon  another  trading  expedition  in  command  of  the  ship 
Columbia.  Arriving  safely  in  the  North  Pacific^  he  spent 
the  winter  of  1 791-1792  upon  Vancouver  Island. 

Vancouver,  whose  name  has  been  given  to  the  largest 
island  upon  the  western  coast  of  North  America,  and  who 
did  so  much  to  make  known  the  intricate  coast  line  of  the 
l'uget  Sound  region,  arrived  upon  the  scene  in  1792.  He 
was  authorized  to  carry  on  explorations,  and  to  treat  with 
Spain  concerning  the  abandonment  of  the  Spanish  claim 
to  Nootka  Sound. 

Vancouver  sailed  up  the  coast,  keeping  a  close  lookout 
for  the  river  San  Roque.  No  opening  in  the  land  ap- 
peared, although  at  one  spot  he  sailed  through  a  muddy- 
colored  sea  which  he  judged  was  affected  by  the  water 
of  some  river.  Upon  reaching  the  Strait  of  Fuca,  Van- 
couver expressed  the  opinion  that  there  was  no  river 
between  the  fortieth  and  forty-eighth  degrees  of  north 
latitude,  "only  brooks  insufficient  for  our  vessels  to  navi- 
gate." 

Shortly  after  this  time,  Vancouver  met  Captain  Gray 
with  his  ship  Columbia.  The  disheartened  explorer  placed 
no  confidence  in  Captain  Gray's  report  that,  upon  his 
former  voyage,  he  had  discovered  a  large  river  to  the 
south.  Vancouver  in  his  narrative  says,  "  1  was  thor- 
oughly convinced  that  we  could  not  possibly  have  passed 
any  safe  navigable  opening,  harbor,  or  place  of  security 
for  shipping  on  this  coast  from  Cape  Mendocino  to  the 
promontory  of  Closset  "  (Cape  Flatter)  ). 

Captain    Gray,    however,  determined    to   make    further 


THE    DISCOVERY   OF   THE   COLUMBIA    RIVER 


91 


investigations 


lie  sailed  southward  and  entered  a  port 
now  known  as  Gray's  Harbor,  where  he  spent  several 
days  trading  with  the  Indians.  From  this  harbor  he  ran 
on  south  for  a  few  miles  past  Cape  Disappointment,  and 
then  sailed  through  an  opening  in  the  breakers  into  a  bay 
which  he  supposed  formed  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  which 


Fig.  39. — A  Scene  on  Gray's  Harbor,  Washington 

Showing  sawmills  and  log  booms 

he  was  in  search.     He  finally  anchored,  as  he  says,  "in  a 
large  river  of  fresh  water." 

Later  Captain  Gray  took  the  vessel  twelve  or  fifteen 
miles  up  the  river,  and  would  have  gone  farther  if  he  had 
not  wandered  into  the  wrong  channel.  When  he  left  the 
river  he  named  it  the  Columbia  in  honor  of  his  vessel. 
Thus  by  the  right  of  actual  discovery  the  United  States 
was  at  last  able  to  make  good  its  claim  to  the  river. 


92  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

The  English  claimed  that  Gray  did  not  enter  the  river 
itself,  as  the  tide  sets  up  many  miles  farther  than  the 
point  which  his  ship  reached.  They  insisted  that  what  he 
saw  was  simply  a  bay.  But  the  truth  is  that  Gray  was 
actually  in  the  mouth  of  the  river.  The  mere  fact  that  the 
tide  enters  the  lower  portion  of  the  river  makes  no  differ- 
ence. The  actual  mouth  of  the  Columbia  is  marked  by 
the  north  and  south  coast  line.  The  entrance  of  the  tide 
water,  and  the  backing  of  the  current  for  many  miles 
up  stream,  is  the  result  of  a  recent  sinking  of  the  land. 
The  same  features  are  presented  by  the  Hudson  River. 

If  the  English  had  discovered  and  entered  the  river  first 
it  is  probable  that  this  stream  would  have  become  the 
boundary  line  between  the  United  States  and  British 
Columbia,  in  which  case  the  whole  northern  portion  of 
the  Oregon  territory  would  have  been  lost  to  us.  As  it 
was,  the  English  laid  insistent  claim  to  the  northern  bank 
of  the  river  and  established  trading  posts  at  various  points. 
The  lowest  of  these  posts  stood  upon  the  site  of  Fort  Van- 
couver, a  little  above  the  mouth  of  the  Willamette  River. 

The  famous  exploring  expedition  under  Captains  Lewis 
and  Clark  wintered  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  in 
1 804- 1 805,  in  a  group  of  rude  log  cabins  known  as  Fort 
Clatsop.  The  first  settlement  in  the  vicinity  was  made  in 
181 1,  when  a  fur  company  organized  by  John  Jacob  Astor 
attempted  to  establish  a  trading  post  upon  the  Columbia. 
Two  parties  were  sent  out  from  New  York.  One  travelled 
by  water  around  Cape  Horn,  while  the  other,  with  great 
difficulty,  crossed  the  continent  by  the  way  of  the  Missouri, 
Snake,  and  Columbia  rivers.  The  undertaking  proved 
unsuccessful,  for  after  the  War  of  18 12  began  supplies 
could  no  longer  be  sent  safely  to  the  post. 


THE   DISCOVERY   OF   THE    COLUMBIA    RIVER 


93 


The  Astor  company  finally  surrendered  its  establish- 
ment to  an  English  company,  and  in  this  way  the  control 
of  the  river  was  transferred  to  England.  With  the  return 
of  peace  the  post  was  restored  to  the  United  States,  and  its 
location  is  marked  now  by  the  city  of  Astoria. 


Fig.  40.  —  Tillamook  Rock 
Near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River 


What  small  things  sometimes  determine  the  trend  of 
great  events !  A  little  more  care  and  energy  on  the  part 
of  Vancouver  or  Meares  would  have  placed  the  Columbia 
River  in  the  hands  of  the  English.  The  existence  of  an 
open  river  mouth  without  any  breaking  bar  would  have 
brought  about  the  same  result. 

The  Spaniards  came  first  to  the  Pacific  slope,  claiming 
the  whole  coast  as  far  north  as  the  Russian  possessions. 


94 


THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 


Later  the  United  States,  by  treaty  with  Spain  and  Russia, 
acquired  a  right  to  all  that  portion  of  the  Pacific  coast  of 
North  America  which  lies  between  California  and  the 
Russian  possessions.  But  because  of  the  greater  energy 
of  the  English,  and  the  failure  upon  the  part  of  the  United 
States  to  realize  the  value  of  this  vast  region,  a  consider- 
able section  was  again  lost  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  which 


' 


Fig.  41.  —  Astoria,  Oregon 
At  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River 


made  the  forty-ninth  parallel  the  boundary  line.  The 
intelligence  and  energy  of  Captain  Gray  alone  preserved 
to  us  the  rich  lands  of  Washington. 


THE   GREAT    BASIN    AND    ITS    PECULIAR 

LAKES 

As  our  country  was  slowly  being  explored  and  settled, 
one  region  was  brought  to  light  which  Nature  seemed  to 
have  left  unfinished  and  in  a  desolate  condition.  This  barren 
stretch  of  country  was  once  marked  upon  the  maps  as  the 
Great  American  Desert,  and  included  a  large  part  of  the 
extensive  region  lying  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  upon 
the  east  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  upon  the  west. 
To  the  south  lay  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado,  while 
upon  the  north  the  boundary  was  formed  by  the  canons  of 
the  Snake  and  Columbia  rivers. 

After  a  time  it  was  found  that  this  region,  coverini; 
about  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand  square  miles, 
not  only  was  extremely  dry,  but  had  no  outlet  to  the  ocean. 
A  rim  of  higher  land  all  about  made  of  it  so  perfect  a  basin 
that  it  became  known  as  the  Great  Basin.  None  of  the 
water  that  falls  upon  the  surface  of  this  basin  ever  reaches 
the  ocean  through  surface  streams.  Some  of  it  soaks  into 
the  rocks,  but  the  greater  part  is  evaporated  into  the  dry  air. 

We  have  already  learned  something  about  the  way  in 
which  the  ridges  and  hollows  of  the  earth's  surface  are 
made.  We  have  learned  of  the  wrinkling  of  the  crust,  of 
the  formation  of  fissures,  and  of  the  erosive  work  of  run- 
ning water.  The  interesting  features  of  the  Great  Basin 
are  mainly  the  result  of  two  causes :  the  sinking  of  a 
portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  the  lack  of  rainfall. 

95 


96  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

Long  ago  the  Wasatch  Range  of  eastern  Utah  and  the 
Sierra  Nevadas  of  California  formed  parts  of  a  vast  elevated 
plateau.  Then  there  came  a  time  when  the  forces  holding 
up  the  plateau  were  relaxed,  and  as  the  weight  of  the  plateau 
pressed  it  down,  the  solid  rocks  broke  into  huge  fragments. 
Some  of  the  blocks  thus  made  sank  and  formed  valleys ; 
others  were  tilted  or  pushed  up  and  formed  mountains. 
Thus  the  north  and  south  mountain  ranges  and  valleys  of 
the  Great  Basin  were  born. 

We  must  understand,  then,  that  the  Great  Basin  is  not  a 
simple  depression  with  higher  land  all  about.  The  break- 
ing up  of  the  surface  produced  many  basins,  large  and 
small.  Some  of  these  basins  are  six  thousand  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  others  are  much  lower,  and  one  has 
been  dropped  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  so  that  if  it  were 
not  for  barriers  the  water  would  flow  in.  Some  of  the 
basins  are  rimmed  all  about  by  steep  mountains,  others 
are  so  broad  and  flat  that  it  is  difficult  to  tell  that  they 
really  are  basins.  Many  of  the  valleys  are  so  connected 
with  one  another  that  if  a  heavy  rainfall  should  ever  occur 
drainage  systems  would  be  quickly  established. 

The  Great  Basin  now  appears  like  the  skeleton  of  a 
dried-up  world;  but  if  the  climate  should  change  and  be- 
come like  that  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  surface  of 
the  desert  would  undergo  a  wondrous  transformation. 
The  hundreds  of  basins,  if  fed  by  streams  from  the 
surrounding  mountains,  would  then  become  lakes.  The 
highest,  overflowing,  would  empty  into  a  lower,  and  this  in 
turn  into  a  still  lower  basin,  until  the  water  had  accumu- 
lated in  vast  inland  seas.  These  seas,  overflowing  the 
rim  of  the  Great  Basin  at  its  lowest  points,  would  send 
rivers  hastening  away  to  the  ocean. 


THE  GREAT  BASIN   AND  ITS   PECULIAR   LAKES       97 


What  a  region  of  lakes  this  would  be  for  a  time!  Then 
they  would  begin  to  disappear,  for  lakes  are  short-lived  as 
compared  with  mountains.     Some  would  be  filled  with  clay 


g8  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

and  gravel  brought  by  the  streams.  Others  would  be 
drained   by  a  cutting  down  of  their   outlets. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  which  is  the  only  body  of  water  in  the 
Basin  that  has  ever  sent  a  stream  to  the  ocean,  was  low- 
ered four  hundred  feet*  by  the  washing  away  of  the  rock 
and  earth  at  its  outlet. 

We  know  that  the  rainfall  never  has  been  heavy  in  this 
region  since  the  Great  Basin  was  formed,  although  at  one 
time  it  was  sufficiently  great  to  form  two  inland  seas,  one 
in  northwestern  Nevada,  the  other  in  Utah. 

The  chief  reason  for  the  dryness  of  the  Great  Basin  is 
the  presence  of  that  lofty  barrier,  the  Sierra  Nevada  moun- 
tain range,  between  the  Basin  and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  storms,  which  usually  come  from  the  ocean,  are 
intercepted  by  this  range,  and  the  greater  portion  of  their 
moisture  is  taken  away.  The  little  moisture  that  remains 
falls  upon  the  highlands  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  so  relieves 
its  surface  from  utter  barrenness.  The  adjacent  slopes  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Wasatch  ranges  furnish  numerous 
perennial  streams  which  feed  the  lakes  about  the  borders 
of  the  Basin,  such  as  Great  Salt  Lake,  Pyramid,  Walker, 
Mono,  Money,  and  Owens  lakes.  The  wet  weather  streams, 
flowing  down  the  desert  mountains  for  a  short  time  each 
year,  frequently  form  broad,  shallow  lakes  which  disappear 
with  the  coming  of  the  summer  sun. 

The  climate  of  the  Great  Basin  has  changed  from  time 
to  time.  During  one  period  it  was  much  drier  than  it  is 
now,  and  the  lakes  were  nearly  or  quite  dried  up.  It  must 
have  been  a  desolate  region  then,  shunned  by  animals  and 
forbidden  to  man. 

During  the  Glacial  period,  a  few  thousand  years  ago, 
the  climate  was  moister  and   cooler  than   it   is  now.     The 


THE  GREAT   BASIN   AND   ITS   PECULIAR   LAKES      99 

mountains  were  covered  with  deep  snows,  and  glaciers 
crept  down  the  slopes  of  the  higher  peaks.  Great  Salt 
Lake  covered  all  northwestern  Utah  ;  to  this  former  body 
of  water  the  name  Bonneville  has  been  given,  in  honor  of 
a  noted  trapper.      Pyramid,  Winnemucca,  Carson,  Walker, 


Fig.  42.  —  Mono  Lake,  California 

and  Honey  lakes,  now  separated  from  one  another  by  s 
brush  deserts,  were  then  united  in  one  great  lake,  to  which 
the  name  Lahontan  has  been  given,  in  honor  of  an  early 
French  explorer. 

Lake  Lahontan  covered  a  large  portion  of  northwestern 
Nevada  and  penetrated  into  California.  It  was  broken 
into    long  winding    arms  and   bays    by  various    mountain 


100 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 


ranges.  The  deepest  portion  of  this  ancient  lake  is  now 
occupied  by  Pyramid  Lake,  which  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
picturesque  of  all  the  Basin  lakes.  Fish  can  live  in  the 
waters  of  this  lake,  although  nearly  all  the  others  are  so 
salty  or  so  alkaline  that  they  support  none  of  the  ordinary 
forms  of  life. 


Fig.  43.  —  Round  Hole,  a  Sprtng  in  the  Smoke  Creek  Desert 
Bed  of  old  Lake  Lahontan 


Upon  the  Black  Rock  Desert,  in  northern  Nevada,  there 
are  large  springs  once  covered  by  Lake  Lahontan,  in 
which  fish  are  found.  It  is  thought  that  the  ancestors  of 
these  fish  must  have  been  left  there  at  the  time  of  the  dry- 
ing up  of  the  water. 

After  the  Glacial  period  the  present  arid  climate  began 
to  prevail  in  the  land.  Hundreds  of  the  shallow  lakes 
which  had  been  scattered  over  this  extensive  region  dis- 


THE  GREAT  BASIN  AND  ITS  PECULIAR  LAKES     101 

appeared.  Others  contained  water  for  only  a  portion  of 
each  year.  A  body  of  water  which  is  not  permanent,  but 
comes  and  goes  with  the  seasons,  we  call  a  playa  lake. 
Many  of  these  playa  lakes  present  in  summer  a  hard, 
yellow-clay  floor  of  many  miles  in  extent  and  entirely  free 
from  vegetation.     The  beds  of  others  are  covered  with  a 


Fig.  44.  —  Rogers  Lake,  Mohave  Desert 
A  playa  lake 

whitish  crust,  formed  of  the  various  salts  which  were  in 
solution  in  the  lake  water. 

An  important  feature  of  the  lakes  of  the  Great  Basin  is 
the  presence  of  large  quantities  of  such  substances  as 
common  salt,  soda,  borax,  and  nitre.  The  ocean  is  salt 
because  it  has  no  outlet,  while  the  rivers  of  the  globe  are 
continually  bringing  into  it  various  minerals,  dissolved  from 
the  rocks  over  which  they  flow.     Lakes  with  outlets  are  not 


•  102  THE 'WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

salty,  because  with  a  continuous  change  of  the  water  there 
is  no  opportunity  for  the  minerals  to  accumulate,  although 
they  are  always  present  in  small  quantities.  Any  lake 
which  does  not  receive  enough  running  water  to  cause  it 
to  overflow  the  borders  of  its  basin,  will  in  course  of  time 
become  rich  in  various  kinds  of  salt. 

No  two  of  the  lakes  of  the  Great  Basin  are  alike  in  the 
composition  of  their  waters.  This  fact  may  be  due  to  a 
difference  in  the  rocks  about  the  lake  basin,  to  the  presence 
of  varying  mineral  springs,  or  to  the  drying  up  of  one  or 
more  of  the  lakes  at  some  time  so  that  their  former  salts 
were  buried  under  sands  and  clays  when  the  water  again 
filled  the  basin. 

Great  Salt  Lake  contains  little  besides  common  salt.  In 
Mono  Lake,  soda  and  salt  are  equally  important  constituents, 
while  Owens  Lake  contains  an  excess  of  soda.  In  other 
basins  borax  was  present  in  such  quantities  that  when  the 
waters  dried  up  it  formed  important  deposits.  The  value 
of  these  deposits  is  now  fully  understood,  and  many  enter- 
prising companies  are  at  work  separating  and  purifying  the 
borax. 

Owens  Lake  was  once  fresh,  although  now  it  is  so  strong 
with  soda  that  it  would  destroy  the  skin  if  a  bather  should 
remain  in  it  very  long.  The  former  outlet  of  this  lake  was 
toward  the  south,  through  a  pass  separating  the  Sierra 
Nevada  from  the  Coso  Mountains.  For  a  distance  of  thirty 
miles  the  old  river-bed  has  been  transformed  into  a  wagon 
road,  and  it  is  interesting  to  ride  all  clay  along  the  bed  of 
this  dead  river,  past  bold  cliffs  against  which  the  waters 
once  surged  and  foamed.  The  river  emptied  far  to  the 
south,  into  a  broad,  shallow  lake  whose  former  bed  is 
now   white    with    soda    and    borax.       The    old   beach    lines 


THE  GREAT  BASIN  AND   ITS   PECULIAR  LAKES     103 

stand   out   distinctly    upon    the    slopes    of    the    enclosing 
mountains. 

The  lake  bed  is  now  the  seat  of  an  important  industry  — 
the  gathering  of  the  borax  and  its  refining.  There  are 
extensive  buildings  at  one  spot  upon  its  border,  and  men 
come  and  go  across  the  blinding  white  surface.  A  twenty- 
mule  team  dragging  three  huge  wagons  creeps  slowly  along 


Fig.  45. — Freighting  Borax  across  the  Desert 

the  base  of  the  distant  mountains,  but  all  that  can  be  dis- 
tinguished is  a  cloud  of  dust. 

The  slow  crumbling  of  the  rocks,  and  the  setting  free 
of  those  constituents  which  are  soluble,  the  work  of  the 
streams  in  gathering  the  rock  waste  into  the  lakes,  the  dry 
air  and  the  heat  of  the  long  summer  days,  have  all  con- 
spired together  to  give  us  these  valuable  deposits  in  the 
dried-up  lakes  of  the  Great  Basin. 


104 


THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 


No  portion  of  the  earth  seems  to  be  without  value  to 
man.  The  great  bodies  of  water  are  convenient  highways. 
The  rich  valleys  and  timbered  mountains  offer  useful  prod- 
ucts. Even  the  deserts,  where  living  things  of  every  de- 
scription find  the  struggle  for  existence  very  hard,  become 
indispensable.     If  the  climate  in  the  Great  Basin  had  been 


Fig.  46.  —  Mushroom  Rock,  Pyramid  Lake 
Formed  of  calcareous  tufa 

moist,  the  salts  would  not  have  been  preserved,  but  would 
have  been  carried  away  to  the  ocean,  from  which  only 
common  salt  could  have  been  recovered  in  commercial 
quantities. 

The  crossing  of  the  Great  Basin  was  dreaded  by  the  early 
emigrants  on  their  way  to  the  Pacific  coast.  In  many  cases 
the  locations  of  the  few  springs  and  water-courses  were 


THE  GREAT   BASIN   AND   ITS   PECULIAR   LAKES     105 

unknown,  and  the  journey  over  the  vast  barren  stretches 
was  fraught  with  danger. 

Stand  upon  a  mountain  in  the  desert  some  clear  day  in 
summer  and  you  will  see  range  after  range,  with  interven- 
ing sandy  wastes,  stretching  away  to  the  horizon.  The  air 
below  is  tremulous  with  heat,  and  every  living  thing  that 
can  move  has  sought  the  shade  of  some  rock  or  cliff.  The 
plants  seem  almost  dead,  for  the  little  springs,  hidden  at 
rare  intervals  in  the  deep  canons,  are  of  no  use  to  them. 

What  transformations  would  be  wrought  upon  these 
desert  slopes  if  it  were  possible  for  the  soil  to  receive  and 
retain  large  quantities  of  water !  Forest-covered  mountains, 
green  hillsides,  rippling  streams,  lakes,  farms,  orchards, 
and  towns  would  appear  as  if  by  magic. 


FREMONT'S  ADVENTURES  IN  THE  GREAT 

BASIN 

Fremont,  "  the  Pathfinder,"  did  greater  service  than 
any  other  man  in  making  known  the  geographic  features 
of  the  Cordilleran  region.  In  the  fifth  decade  of  the 
last  century,  while  California  still  belonged  to  Mexico  and 
the  pioneers  were  turning  their  attention  to  the  Oregon 
country,  Fremont  organized  and  conducted  three  exploring 
expeditions  under  the  direction  of  the  government.  When 
in  California  upon  the  third  expedition  he  took  part  in  the 
skirmishes  which  resulted  in  the  transference  of  this  sec- 
tion to  the  United  States. 

A  fourth  expedition,  undertaken  by  Fremont  on  his  own 
account,  resulted  disastrously.  The  explorers  foolishly 
tried  to  cross  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  middle  of  win- 
ter, but  had  to  give  up  the  attempt  after  many  of  the 
party  had  died  from  cold  and  starvation. 

It  is  hard  for  us  to  realize,  now,  that  only  sixty  years 
ago  the  territory  lying  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
the  Pacific  coast  was  practically  unknown.  Try  to  imagine 
the  feelings  of  emigrants,  bound  for  the  gold-fields  of  Cali- 
fornia, who  have  pushed  into  the  Great  Basin  without  know- 
ing where  to  look  for  grass  or  water.  They  are  camped  by 
a  spring  of  alkaline  water  scarcely  fit  to  drink  ;  their  weary 
animals  nibble  at  the  scanty  grass  about  the  spring ;  far 
ahead  stretches  the  pathless  desert  which  they  must  cross ; 
upon  their  choice  of  a  route  their  very  lives  will  depend. 

1 06 


FREMONT'S  ADVENTURES  IN  THE  GREAT  BASIN      107 

Now  it  is  all  changed.  The  whole  region  is  crossed 
and  recrossed  by  wagon  roads  and  railways.  Many  min- 
ing towns  are  scattered  through  the  mountains  which  dot 
the  seemingly  boundless  expanse  of  desert,  while  in  every 
place  where  water  can  be  found  there  are  gardens,  green 
fields  of  alfalfa,  and  herds  of  cattle. 

Before  the  year  1840  some  knowledge  had  been  ac- 
quired of  the  borders  of  the  Great  Basin.  Trappers  and 
explorers  had  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  had  gone 
down  the  Columbia  River.  There  were  Spanish  settle- 
ments in  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  along  the  coast  of 
California. 

Fremont's  first  expedition  had  taken  him  to  the  summit 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  northwestern  Wyoming.  In 
1843  he  started  upon  the  second  expedition.  He  was  at 
that  time  commissioned  to  cross  the  Rockies,  descend  the 
Columbia  to  Fort  Vancouver,  and  return  by  a  route  far- 
ther to  the  south,  across  the  unknown  region  between  the 
Columbia  and  the  Colorado  rivers. 

Let  us  follow  the  little  band  of  explorers  led  by  Captain 
Fremont  as  day  after  day  they  made  their  way  across  what 
was  then  a  trackless  waste,  and  see  what  troubles  they  en- 
countered because  of  the  inaccuracy  of  the  maps  of  that 
period. 

Leaving  Fort  Vancouver,  upon  the  lower  Columbia,  for 
the  return  trip,  the  party  ascended  the  river  to  The  Dalles 
and  then  turned  southward  along  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Cascade  Range.  They  soon  entered  upon  a  region  never 
before  traversed  by  white  men.  At  the  time  when  autumn 
was  giving  place  to  winter,  without  reliable  guides  or  maps, 
they  were  to  cross  the  deserts  lying  between  them  and 
the  Rocky  Mountains. 


io8 


THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 


They  met  with  no  great  difficulties  until  they  had  gone 
as  far  south  as  Klamath  Lake.  "  From  this  point,"  Fre- 
mont says,  "  our  course  was  intended  to  be  about  south- 
east to  a  reported  lake  called  Mary's,  at  some  days' journey 
in  the  Great  Basin,  and  thence,  still  on  southeast  to  the 


■■"«*•  n? 


K    f  ■ 


:  '/// /„,,./""'«'/«l./„     sf 


:uj^"/i;v"''  --if  v%w 

/  '  -  U  /a  '*''»•       Be.  /.' 


Fig.  47. —  Map  of  a  Portion  of  Western  North  America,  made  in  1826 
Showing  the  Buenaventura  River 

reputed  Buenaventura  (good  chance)  River,  which  has  had 
a  place  on  so  many  maps,  and  countenanced  the  belief  in 
the  existence  of  a  great  river  flowing  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  to  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco." 

Figure  47  shows  one  of  the  maps  to  which  Fremont 
refers.  How  interesting  it  is  !  Compare  it  with  a  good 
map  in  your  geography  and  you  will  readily  see  that  it  is 


FREMONT'S  ADVENTURES  IN  THE  GREAT  BASIN      109 

very  misleading.  The  Sierra  Nevada,  one  of  the  greatest 
mountain  ranges  in  the  United  States,  hardly  appears, 
while  traced  directly  across  the  map  is  the  great  Buena- 
ventura River  which  Fremont  expected  to  find  and  follow 
eastward  toward  its  source  near  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

If  this  river  had  really  been  where  it  was  mapped,  it 
is  likely  that  Fremont  would  have  had  no  trouble,  for  if 
hard  pressed  he  could  have  followed  the  stream  down  to 
the  ocean.  But  a  wall  of  snow-covered  mountains  lying 
in  the  way  made  matters  very  different. 

Winter  was  coming  on  when  the  party  entered  what  is 
now  northwestern  Nevada,  looking  for  the  Buenaventura 
River.  For  several  weeks  they  toiled  on,  often  through  the 
snow.  Concerning  this  part  of  the  journey  Fremont  says: 
"  We  had  reached  and  run  over  the  position  where,  accord- 
ing to  the  best  maps  in  my  possession,  we  should  have 
found  Mary's  lake  or  river.  We  were  evidently  on  the 
verge  of  the  desert,  and  the  country  was  so  forbidding 
that  we  were  afraid  to  enter  it." 

The  party  then  turned  south,  still  hoping  that  the  river 
might  be  discovered.  After  a  time  they  came  upon  a 
large  lake  and  travelled  for  many  miles  along  its  eastern 
shore.  One  camp  was  made  opposite  a  tall,  pyramid- 
shaped  island,  the  white  surface  of  which  made  it  conspic- 
uous for  a  long  distance.  Fremont  was  much  impressed 
by  the  resemblance  of  the  island  to  the  pyramids  of  Egypt 
and  so  named  the  body  of  water  Pyramid  Lake.  At  the 
southern  end  of  the  lake  the  travellers  found  a  large  stream 
flowing  into  it  (now  known  as  the  Truckee  River),  and  fol- 
lowed along  its  banks  for  some  distance ;  but  as  the  river 
turned  toward  the  west,  they  left  it  and  struck  out  across 
the  country. 


no 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 


Fremont  says  again,  "  With  every  stream  I  now  expected 
to  see  the  great  Buenaventura,  and  Carson  (Kit  Carson, 
the  famous  scout)  hurried  eagerly  to  search  on  every  one  we 
reached  for  beaver  cuttings,  which  he  always  maintained 
we  should  find  only  on  waters  which  ran  to  the  Pacific." 

But  all  the  streams  flowed  in  the  wrong  direction,  until 
at  last  the  explorers  grew  weary  of  hunting  for  the  river 


Fig.  48.  —  Pyramid  Island,  Pyramid  Lake,  Nevada 


which  had  no  existence.  Although  it  was  the  middle  of 
the  winter,  Fremont  determined  to  cross  the  lofty  Sierras 
which  rose  like  a  white  wall  to  the  west.  Once  over  the 
mountains,  he  hoped  to  gain  the  American  settlements  in 
the  Sacramento  Valley,  where  already  Sutter's  Fort  had 
been  established. 

The  party  ascended  Walker  River,  dragging,  with  great 
difficulty,  a  howitzer  which  they  had  brought  with  them. 


FREMONT'S  ADVENTURES  IN  THE  GREAT  BASIN   1 1 1 

The  snows  grew  deeper  as  storm  succeeded  storm.  Feel- 
ing that  they  were  really  lost,  the  disheartened  men  at 
length  abandoned  the  gun,  at  a  spot  which  has  since  been 
named  Lost  Canon. 

When  their  own  provisions  were  nearly  gone,  the  party 
obtained  some  pine  nuts  and  also  several  rabbits  from 
the  Indians.      A  dog  which  had  been  brought  along  made 


Fig.  49.  —  Lost  Canon,  Eastern  Slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 


one  good  meal  for  the  wayfarers.  An  Indian  who  had 
been  persuaded  to  act  as  guide  pointed  out  the  spot 
where  two  white  men,  one  of  whom  was  Walker,  a 
noted  frontiersman,  had  once  crossed  the  mountains ;  but 
the  guide  made  them  understand  that  it  was  impossible  to 
cross  at  that  time  of  the  year,  saying,  in  his  own  language, 
"  Rock  upon  rock,  snow  upon  snow." 

Although  they  could   advance  only  by  breaking  paths 


112 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 


through  the  snow,  and  were  reduced  to  eating  mule  and 
horse  flesh,  yet  the  Fremont  party  pushed  on.  Finally 
they  reached  the  summit  of  the  mountains  and  turned  down 
by  the  head  of  a  stream  flowing  westward,  which  proved 
to  be  the  American  River.  After  three  weeks  more  of 
terrible  suffering  they  came  out  of  the  mountains  at  Sut- 
ter's Fort,  where  they  obtained  supplies  and  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  rest  and  recruit. 


Fk..  50.  —  Fremont  Peak,  Mohave  Desert 


Fremont  now  recognized  the  incorrectness  of  the  maps 
which  had  so  nearly  caused  the  destruction  of  the  party. 
As  he  says  in  his  notes :  "  No  river  from  the  interior  does, 
or  can,  cross  the  Sierra  Nevada,  itself  more  lofty  than  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  .  .  .  There  is  no  opening  from  the 
Bay  of  San  Francisco  into  the  interior  of  the  continent." 

When  the  return  journey  was  begun  the  party  did  not 
recross  the  high  Sierras,  but  turned    southward    through 


FREMONT'S  ADVENTURES  IN  THE  GREAT  BASIN   113 

the  San  Joaquin  Valley  and  gained  the  Mohave  Desert  by 
the  way  of  Tehachapai  pass.  The  route  now  led  eastward 
across  the  deserts  and  low  mountain  ranges  of  California 
and  southern  Nevada,  until  at  last  Great  Salt  Lake  was 
reached. 

Among  the  many  geographical  discoveries  of  the  expe- 
dition was  the  demonstration  of  the  existence  of  the  Great 


i  >*&$&        /fan 

^  '  JRRHH 

• 

Fig.  51.  — Sage-brush  in  the  Great  Basin 

Basin.  In  his  report,  Fremont,  while  speaking  of  its  vast 
sterile  valleys  and  of  the  Indians  which  inhabit  them,  says  : 
11  That  it  is  peopled  we  know,  but  miserably  and  sparsely 
.  .  .  dispersed  in  single  families  .  .  .  eating  seeds  and 
insects,  digging  roots  (hence  their  name)  [Digger  Indians], 
such  is  the  condition  of  the  greater  part.  Others  are  a 
degree  higher  and  live  in  communities  upon  some  lake  or 
river  from  which  they  repulse  the  miserable  Diggers. 


114  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

"  The  rabbit  is  the  largest  animal  known  in  this  desert, 
its  flesh  affords  a  little  meat.  .  .  .  The  wild  sage  is  their 
only  wood,  and  here  it  is  of  extraordinary  size  —  sometimes 
a  foot  in  diameter  and  six  or  eight  feet  high.  It  serves  for 
fuel,  for  building  material,  for  shelter  for  the  rabbits,  and 
for  some  sort  of  covering  for  the  feet  and  legs  in  cold 
weather.  But  I  flatter  myself  that  what  is  discovered, 
though  not  enough  to  satisfy  curiosity,  is  sufficient  to 
excite  it,  and  that  subsequent  explorations  will  complete 
what  has  been  commenced." 


THE   STORY   OF   GREAT   SALT    LAKE 

The  most  interesting  geographical  feature  of  Utah  is 
the  Great  Salt  Lake.  •  Few  tourists  now  cross  the  continent 
without  visiting  the  lake  and  taking  a  bath  in  its  briny 
waters.  This  strange  body  of  water  has,  however,  been 
slowly  growing  smaller  for  some  years,  and  probably  will 
in  time  disappear.  A  study  of  the  history  of  the  lake  may 
throw  some  light  upon  the  important  question  of  its  pos- 
sible disappearance,  and  it  will  certainly  bring  out  many 
interesting  facts. 

We  do  not  know  with  certainty  who  was  the  first  white 
man  to  look  upon  this  inland  sea,  although  it  is  supposed 
to  have  been  James  Bridger,  a  noted  trapper,  who  in  1825 
followed  Bear  River  down  to  its  mouth.  He  tasted  the 
water  and  found  it  salt,  a  fact  which  encouraged  him  in 
the  belief  that  he  had  found  an  arm  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

More  than  two  hundred  years  ago  there  were  vague  ideas 
about  a  salt  lake  situated  somewhere  beyond  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  In  1689  Baron  Lahontan  published  an  account 
of  his  travels  from  Mackinac  to  the  Mississippi  River  and 
the  region  beyond.  He  states  that  he  ascended  a  westerly 
branch  of  the  river  for  six  weeks,  until  the  season  became 
too  late  for  farther  progress.  He  reports  meeting  savages 
who  said  that  one  hundred  and  fifty  leagues  beyond  there 
was  a  salt  lake,  "  three  hundred  leagues  in  circumference 
—  its  mouth  stretching  a  great  way  to  the  southward." 

This  imaginative  story  aroused  interest  in  the  West.     In 

"5 


Il6  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

a  book  published  in  1772,  devoted  to  a  description  of  the 
province  La  Louisiane,  the  possibility  of  water  communi- 
cation with  the  South  Sea  is  discussed  as  follows  :  "  It  will 
be  of  great  convenience  to  this  country,  if  ever  it  becomes 
settled,  that  there  is  an  easy  communication  therewith, 
and  the  South  Sea,  which  lies  between  America  and  China, 
and  that  two  ways :  by  the  north  branch  of  the  great  Yel- 
low River,  by  the  natives  called  the  river  of  the  '  Masso- 
rites'  (Missouri),  which  hath  a  course  of  five  hundred  miles, 
navigable  to  its  head,  or  springs,  and  which  proceeds  from 
a  ridge  of  hills  somewhat  north  of  New  Mexico,  passable 
by  horse,  foot,  or  wagon,  in  less  than  half  a  day.  On  the 
other  side  are  rivers  which  run  into  a  great  lake  that  emp- 
ties itself  by  another  navigable  river  into  the  South  Sea. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Meschaouay,  up  which  our 
people  have  been,  but  not  so  far  as  the  Baron  Lahontan, 
who  passed  on  it  above  three  hundred  miles  almost  due 
west,  and  declares  it  comes  from  the  same  ridge  of  hills 
above  mentioned,  and  that  divers  rivers  from  the  other 
side  soon  make  a  large  river,  which  enters  into  a  vast  lake, 
on  which  inhabit  two  or  three  great  nations,  much  more 
populous  and  civilized  than  other  Indians  ;  and  out  of  that 
lake  a  great  river  disembogues  into  the  South  Sea." 

In  1776  Father  Escalante  travelled  from  Santa  Fe  far 
to  the  north  and  west.  He  met  Indians  who  told  him  of 
a  lake  the  waters  of  which  produced  a  burning  sensation 
when  placed  upon  the  skin.  This  was  probably  Great 
Salt  Lake,  but  it  is  not  thought  that  ho  himself  ever  saw 
it.  The  Escalante  Desert,  in  southern  Utah,  once  covered 
by  the  waters  of  the  lake,  is  named  after  this  explorer. 

Nothing  more  seems  to  have  been  learned  of  the  lake 
after  its  discovery  by  Bridger   until    in    1833    Bonneville, 


THE  STORY  OF  GREAT  SALT  LAKE 


117 


a  daring  leader  among  the  trappers,  organized  a  party  for 
its  exploration.  Washington  Irving,  in  his  history  of  Cap- 
tain Bonneville,  says  of  the  party,  "  A  desert  surrounded 
them  and  stretched  to  the  southwest  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  reach,  rivalling  the  deserts  of  Asia  and  Africa  in  ste- 
rility.    There  was  neither  tree,  nor  herbage,  nor  spring,  nor 


Fig.  52.  —  Scene  on  Great  Salt  Lake 


pool,  nor  running  stream,  nothing  but  parched  wastes  of 
sand,  where  horse  and  rider  were  in  danger  of  perishing." 

Although  decreasing  in  area  so  rapidly,  Great  Salt  Lake 
is  still  the  largest  body  of  water  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  largest  salt  lake  within  its  boun- 
daries. It  has  a  length  of  seventy  miles  and  a  maximum 
width  of  nearly  fifty  miles. 

Desolate,  indeed,  must  have  appeared  the  surroundings 


Il8  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

of  the  lake,  with  its  salt-incrusted  borders,  as  the  Mormon 
emigrants  gained  the  summit  of  the  Wasatch  Range  and 
looked  out  over  the  vast  expanse  to  the  west.  But  as  the 
slopes  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  seemed  capable  of  pro- 
ducing food  for  their  support,  they  stopped  and  made  their 
homes  there.  Now  in  this  same  region,  after  half  a  cen- 
tury, one  can  ride  for  many  miles  through  as  beautiful  and 
highly  cultivated  a  country  as  the  sun  ever  looked  down 
upon.  In  the  early  days  the  barren  plains  were  broken 
only  by  mountains  almost  as  barren,  which  rose  from  them 
like  the  islands  from  the  surface  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake. 
The  only  pleasing  prospect  was  toward  the  east,  where 
stood  the  steep  and  rugged  Wasatch  Range,  with  its  snow- 
capped peaks.  From  its  deep  canons  issued  large  streams 
of  pure,  cold  water,  which  flowed  undisturbed  across  the 
brush-covered  slopes,  then  unbroken  by  irrigating  ditches, 
and  at  last  were  lost  in  the  salt  lake. 

One  might  think  that  streams  of  water  apparently  so 
pure  would  at  last  freshen  the  lake,  but  in  reality  they  are 
carrying  along  invisible  particles  of  mineral  matter  which 
add  to  its  saltness  day  by  day.  The  dry  air  steals  away 
the  water  from  the  lake  as  fast  as  it  runs  in,  but  cannot 
take  the  minerals  w'hich  it  holds  in  solution. 

Great  Salt  Lake  is  still  considered  very  large,  but  a! 
one  time  it  was  ten  times  its  present  size,  while  still  longei 
ago  there  was  no  lake  at  all.  Without  a  basin  there  can 
be  no  lake,  and  at  that  far-away  time,  as  we  have  already 
learned,  the  Great  Basin  did  not  exist,  and  the  streams, 
if  there  were  any,  ran  away  to  the  ocean  without  hindrance. 

When  the  Great  Basin  was  formed  by  a  breaking  and 
bending  of  the  crust  of  the  earth,  many  a  stream  lost  its 
connection  with  the  ocean  and  went  to  work  filling  up  the 


THE  STORY  OF  GREAT  SALT  LAKE 


IIQ 


smaller  basins,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  lakes  which  have 
already  been  described.  The  largest  of  these  bodies  of 
water,  and  in  some  respects  the  most  interesting,  is  Great 
Salt  Lake. 

This  lake,  lying  close  to  the  lofty  Wasatch  Range,  re- 
ceived so  much  water  from  numerous  streams  during  the 
Glacial   period   that   it   slowly   spread    over   thousands    of 


Fig.  53.  —  Old  Shore  Line  of  Lake  Bonneville 
Foot  of  the  Wasatch  Range 

square  miles,  overrunning  the  desert  valleys  and  making 
islands  of  the  scattered  mountain  ranges.  It  extended 
from  north  to  south  across  Utah,  into  southern  Idaho  and 
almost  to  the  Arizona  line,  until  this  body  of  water,  which 
arose  from  so  small  beginnings,  had  become  a  veritable 
inland  sea,  three  hundred  miles  long,  one  hundred  miles 
wide,  and  one  thousand  feet  deep. 


120  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

By  the  time  the  lake  had  covered  an  area  of  twenty 
thousand  square  miles  the  lowest  point  in  the  rim  of  the 
basin  was  reached  and  the  overflow  began.  No  map  will 
tell  you  where  the  outlet  was,  for  no  river  exists  there  now. 
If  you  could  explore  the  shore  lines  of  this  ancient  lake, 
which  has  been  called  Bonneville  after  the  noted  trapper, 
you  would  find  two  low  spots  in  the  mountains  which  hem 
the  waters  in,  one  upon  the  south,  facing  the  Colorado 
River,  the  other  on  the  north  toward  the  Snake  River. 
The  one  on  the  north  happened  to  be  a  little  lower,  so 
that  the  break  occurred  there.  First  as  a  little,  trickling 
stream,  then  as  a  mighty,  surging  river,  the  water  poured 
northward  down  the  valley  of  a  small  stream,  widening 
and  deepening  it  until,  passing  the  spot  where  now  the 
town  of  Pocatello  stands,  it  joined  the  Snake  River. 

This  old  outlet  is  now  known  as  Red  Rock  Pass,  and  it 
forms  an  easy  route  for  the  Oregon  Short  Line  from 
Salt  Lake  City  to  the  plains  of  southern  Idaho.  The  old 
river-bed  is  marked  by  marshes  and  fertile  farms. 

With  an  outlet  established.  Lake  Bonneville  could  rise 
no  higher,  and  its  waves  began  the  formation  of  a  well- 
defined  terrace  or  beach,  just  as  waves  are  sure  to  do 
along  every  shore.  The  level  of  the  water  could  not  re- 
main permanently  at  the  same  height,  for  the  rocks  at  the 
outlet  were  being  worn  away  by  the  large  volume  of  water 
which  flowed  over  them  In  the  course  of  years  the 
level  of  the  lake  was  lowered  four  hundred  feet.  The 
sinking  was  not  uniform,  but  took  place  by  stages,  while 
at  each  period  of  rest  the  waves  made  a  new  beach  line. 
The  lake  during  all  this  time  must  have  been  a  beautiful 
sheet  of  fresh  water  filled  with  fish.  Its  shores,  also,  must 
have  been  much  richer  in  vegetation  than  they  are  now. 


THE  STORY  OF  GREAT  SALT  LAKE 


121 


The  water  remained  for  a  long  time  at  the  level  of  four 
hundred  feet  below  its  highest  stage.  This  fact  is  evident 
from  the  width  of  the  wave-cut  terrace,  which  is  the  most 
prominent  of  all  those  that  mark  the  old  levels  along  the 
sides  of  the  mountains.  Finally,  for  some  reason  the  cli- 
mate began  to  change,  the  streams  supplied  less  water  to 


Fig.  54.  —  Red  Rock  Pass,  Southern  Idaho 
Outlet  of  Lake  Bonneville 

the  lake,  and  the  evaporation  from  its  surface  became 
greater  because  the  air  was  drier.  As  a  result  the  lake 
was  lowered  to  such  an  extent  that  it  lost  its  outlet.  The 
mighty  river  flowing  down  through  Red  Rock  Canon  grew 
smaller  and  at  last  dried  up  altogether. 

In    this  manner  the   lake  was    again  cut  off  from  the 


122  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

ocean,  as  it  had  been  during  its  earlier  history.  The 
waters  still  continued  to  recede,  but  not  at  a  uniform  rate. 
During  periods  of  greater  rain  its  level  remained  stationary, 
so  that  the  waves  added  new  terraces  to  those  already 
formed. 

As  the  lake  had  no  outlet  and  was  decreasing  in  volume, 
the  water  became  salty,  for  the  minerals  brought  by  the 
streams  could  no  longer  be  carried  away.  The  fish  either 
died  or  passed  up  into  the  purer  waters  of  the  inflowing 
streams. 

The  water  of  the  present  lake  is  so  salt  that  in  every 
four  quarts  there  is  one  quart  of  salt,  and  the  preparation 
of  this  commodity  by  a  process  of  evaporating  the  water 
in  ponds  has  become  an  important  industry.  The  water  is 
the  strongest  kind  of  brine  and  it  is  impossible  for  a  bather 
to  sink  in  it.  One  floats  about  upon  it  almost  as  lightly 
as  wood  does  upon  ordinary  water.  After  bathing  it  is 
necessary  to  wash  in  fresh  water  to  remove  the  salt  from 
the  body. 

The  dry  bed  of  the  former  Lake  Bonneville  stretches 
far  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  present  lake,  and  forms 
one  of  the  most  barren  and  arid  regions  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  Great  American 
Desert. 

Why  is  the  lake  receding  now  ?  Some  people  think  that 
the  climate  is  growing  still  more  arid,  and  that  the  lake 
will  eventually  disappear.  Others  think  that  its  shrinkage 
is  the  result  of  irrigation,  for  a  large  part  of  the  water  from 
the  streams  which  supply  it  is  now  taken  out  and  turned 
upon  the  land.  There  is  still  another  reason  which  may 
account  for  the  low  water.  The  lake  is  known  to  rise 
and  fall  during  a  series  of  wet  and  dry  years.     When  first 


THE  STORY  OF  GREAT  SALT  LAKE      123 

mapped,  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  it  was  about  as 
low  as  it  is  now.  Then  it  gradually  rose  for  a  number  of 
years  and  lately  has  again  been  falling. 

The  story  of  Great  Salt  Lake  has  been  much  more  com- 
plicated than  the  statement  given  above,  but  this  is  sufficient 
for  our  purpose. 

Irrigation  has  made  a  garden  spot  of  a  large  part  of  the 
old  bed  of  Lake  Bonneville,  but  much  of  the  beauty  and 
attractiveness  of  this  region  would  be  lost  if  the  present 
lake  should  give  place  to  a  bed  of  glistening  salt.  Let  us 
hope  that  it  will  remain  as  it  is. 


THE    SKAGIT    RIVER 

The  Skagit  is  not  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  world, 
for  very  little  of  its  course  lies  outside  the  boundaries  of  a 
single  state..  It  is,  however,  none  the  less  interesting. 
Few  rivers  with  a  length  of  only  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  present  so  great  a  variety  of  instructive  features. 
We  shall  certainly  learn  more  from  a  study  of  the  Skagit 
than  from  many  a  better  known  and  more  pretentious 
river. 

Innumerable  torrents,  fed  by  the  glaciers  of  the  Cascade 
Range,  pour  down  the  rocky  slopes  and  lose  themselves  in 
the  wooded  canons  below.  The  canon  streams,  of  much 
greater  size,  flow  less  impetuously  over  gentler  slopes,  and 
are  frequently  blocked  by  boulders  and  logs.  These 
streams  unite  in  one  broad,  deep  river,  which  moves  on 
quietly  to  its  resting-place  in  Puget  Sound.  Its  name, 
Skagit,  is  of  Indian  origin  and  means  wild  cat. 

By  following  the  Skagit  River  and  a  tributary  stream, 
one  can  go  from  the  bare  and  snowy  summit  of  the  Cascade 
Range  down  through  dense  forests,  and  come  out  at  last 
upon  a  magnificent  delta,  where  a  fertile  plain  is  slowly 
but  steadily  encroaching  upon  the  waters  of  the  sound. 
What  contrasting  scenes  are  presented  along  the  few 
short  miles  of  the  course  of  the  river !  A  trip  from  its 
source  to  its  mouth  will  be  worth  all  the  trouble  it 
involves,  although  the  trail  is  often  disagreeably  wet  and 
sometimes  dangerous. 

124 


THE    SKAGIT    RIVER 


125 


There  is  no  grander  scenery  in  the  United  States  than 
that  of  the  Cascade  Range ;  nor  are  there  more  dense 
forests  than  those  found  upon  its  western  slope.  The 
range  is  hidden  in  almost  perpetual  clouds  and  storms, 
and  they  are  fortunate  who  can  reach  its  summit  upon 
a  pleasant  day. 


Fig.  55.  —  Summit  of  the  Cascade  Range,  near  the  Head  of  hie 

Skagit  River 


The  forests  of  fir  and  hemlock  have  gained  a  foothold 
nearly  to  the  summit  of  the  range.  Upon  the  little  benches 
and  in  the  protected  nooks  the  trees  grow  thriftily,  and 
dense  groves  are  found  up  to  an  elevation  of  nearly  five 
thousand  feet ;  but  upon  the  more  exposed  and  rocky 
slopes  stunted  trunks  show  the  effect  of  a  constant  strug- 
gle with  the  rocks  and  winds.     Upon  other  slopes,  too  high 


126  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

for  the  trees  to  grow,  there  are  low  shrubs  and  arctic 
mosses;  but  above  all  rise  precipitous  crags  and  peaks, 
utterly  bare  except  for  the  glaciers  nestling  among  them. 

Under  the  shade  of  the  upland  forests  the  moss  is  damp 
and  the  wood  wet,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  comfort- 
able camp  or  to  build  a  fire.  But  these  discomforts  are 
not  worthy  of  consideration  in  view  of  the  inspiration 
which  one  gains  by  the  outlook  from  some  commanding 
point  upon  the  summit  of  the  mountain  range. 

All  about  are  jagged,  splintered  peaks.  Upon  every 
gentle  slope  there  rests,  within  some  alcove,  a  glistening 
mass  of  snow  and  ice.  A  score  of  these  glaciers  are  in 
sight.  They  are  supplied  in  winter  by  the  drifting  snows, 
and  yield  in  summer,  from  their  lower  extremities,  streams 
of  ice-cold  water.  A  multitude  of  streams  raise  a  gentle 
murmur,  broken  occasionally  by  a  dull  roar  as  some  glacier, 
in  its  slow  descent,  breaks  upon  the  edge  of  a  precipice 
and  its  fragments  fall  into  the  canon  below. 

From  a  position  upon  the  summit  above  the  point  where 
the  Skagit  trail  crosses  the  mountains  may  be  seen  a  little 
lake,  on  the  surface  of  which  remains  some  of  last  winter's 
ice  not  yet  melted  by  the  August  sun.  If  the  climate  were 
a  little  colder,  the  basin  would  be  occupied  by  a  glacier 
instead  of  a  lake.  All  about  the  lake  there  are  steep, 
rocky  slopes,  more  or  less  completely  covered  with  low  arctic 
plants  and  stunted,  storm-beaten  hemlocks.  From  among 
the  trees  at  the  foot  of  the  lake  rises  the  roof  of  a  miner's 
log  cabin,  and  a  few  hundred  feet  beyond  a  small,  dark 
opening  in  the  face  of  a  cliff  shows  where  the  miner  is 
running  a  tunnel  in  his  search  for  gold. 

Far  below,  and  heading  close  under  the  sharp  crest  of 
the  range,  are  densely  wooded  canons.     The  fair  weather 


THE    SKAGIT    RIVER  127 

is  passing,  and  it  is  necessary  to  find  the  trail  and  descend. 
Clouds  are  sweeping  across  the  ridges  and  peaks,  and  soon 
the  whole  summit  will  be  covered  by  them. 

From  a  point  a  little  east  of  the  summit  the  clouds  pre- 
sent a  grand  sight  at  the  gathering  of  a  storm.  Higher 
and  higher  they  pile  upon  the  ocean  face  of  the  moun- 
tains. At  the  bottom  they  are  dark  and  threatening,  but 
the  thunder-heads  above  can  be  seen  bathed  in  the  bright 
sunlight.  For  a  time  the  clouds  hang  upon  the  summit 
as  if  stopped  by  some  invisible  barrier;  perhaps  they  are 
loath  to  pass  into  the  drier  air  of  the  eastern  slope.  But 
finally  they  move  on,  and  rain  or  snow  soon  envelops  the 
whole  landscape. 

The  trail  descends  rapidly  for  four  thousand  feet  to 
Cascade  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Skagit.  It  is  a  steep  and 
slippery  way,  and  in  many  places  it  is  not  safe  to  ride  the 
horses.  The  sub-arctic  climate  of  the  summit  is  left  behind, 
and  one  is  soon  surrounded  by  dense  and  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion. Such  a  change  as  this,  in  a  short  distance,  shows 
how  greatly  elevation  affects  climate  and  plant  growth. 

Upon  every  hand  there  is  the  sound  of  rushing  water. 
From  the  cliffs  ribbon-like  cascades  are  falling.  The  rivu- 
lets unite  in  one  stream,  which  roars  and  tumbles  down  the 
canon  over  logs  and  boulders.  The  trail  crosses  and  re- 
crosses  the  torrent  until  the  water  becomes  too  deep  for 
fording,  and  then  it  leads  one  to  a  rude  bridge  made 
of  two  logs  with  split  planks  laid  across  them. 

As  the  canon  widens,  the  trail  leads  farther  from  the 
river  and  through  dense  forests.  The  woods  are  so  silent 
that  they  become  oppressive,  and  the  air  is  damp,  for  the 
sunlight  is  almost  excluded.  The  tall  trees,  fir,  hemlock, 
and  spruce,  with  now  and  then   a  cedar,  stand   close   to- 


128  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

gether.  Shrubs  of  many  kinds  are  crowded  among  them, 
while  mosses  and  ferns  cover  the  ground.  The  fallen 
trunks  are  wrapped  in  moss,  and  young  trees  are  growing 
upon  them,  drawing  their  nourishment  from  the  decaying 
tissues.  In  the  more  open  spots  grow  the  salal  bushes 
with  their  purple  berries,  the  yellow  salmon  berries,  and 
the  blue-black  huckleberries. 

It  is  difficult  to  get  an  idea  of  the  density  of  a  Washing- 
ton forest,  or  of  the  character  of  the  streams,  unless  one 
has  actually  taken  a  trip  through  the  region.  If  one  wishes 
to  escape  the  forest  by  following  the  streams,  he  will  find 
the  path  blocked  by  fallen  trees.  It  is  necessary  continu- 
ally to  climb  over  or  under  obstructions,  and  the  traveller 
is  fortunate  if  he  does  not  fall  into  the  cold  water.  Upon 
the  banks  it  is  even  worse ;  one  must  struggle  through 
dense  prickly  bushes  and  ferns,  and  be  tripped  every  few 
rods.  Though  the  forest  may  appear  at  first  to  offer  an 
easier  way,  it  will  soon  be  found  that  creeping  and  crawl- 
ing through  the  undergrowth  of  bushes  and  young  trees 
is  exceedingly  tiresome,  and  one  will  gladly  return  to  the 
muddy  trail,  thankful  for  its  guidance. 

The  mountains  become  less  precipitous  and  the  canon 
widens  to  a  valley,  until  at  last  the  trail  comes  out  at  a 
clearing  where  the  Cascade  River  joins  the  Skagit.  At  this 
point,  known  as  Marble  PvTountain,  there  is  a  ferry,  also  a 
store  and  several  other  buildings.  The  cleared  fields 
seem  a  relief  after  many  miles  of  dense  forest,  but  such 
openings  are  infrequent,  for  few  settlers  have  yet  pushed 
far  into  the  forests  of  the  Skagit  valley.  To  make  a 
clearing  of  any  size,  tear  out  the  stumps,  and  prepare 
the  land  for  cultivation,  requires  many  years  of  hard 
labor. 


THE   SKAGIT    RIVER 


129 


How  silently  and  yet  with  what  momentum  the  river 
sweeps  on  !  The  water  is  clear  in  summer,  but  in  winter 
it  must  be  very  muddy,  for  the  Skagit  is  building  one  of 
the  largest  deltas  upon  Puget  Sound. 


Fig.  56.  —  Skagit  River  in  its  Middle  Course 


At  Marble  Mountain  the  traveller  may,  if  he  wishes, 
leave  his  horses,  hire  an  Indian  canoe,  and  float  down  the 
river  to  the  nearest  railroad  station.  The  ride  in  the  cedar 
canoe,  with  an  Indian  at  the  stern  carefully  guiding  it 
past  snags  and  boulders,  is  one  of  the  pleasantest  portions 
of  the  trip.  The  winding  river  is  followed  for  nearly  fifty 
miles.  There  is  mile  after  mile  of  silent  forest,  the  soli- 
tude broken  only  here  and  there  by  camps  of  Indians  who 
are  spending  the  summer  by  the  river,  fishing  and  picking 
huckleberries.     Now  and  then  a  call  comes  from  one  of 


130  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

these  camps,  and  in  spite  of  the  danger  of  being  swamped 
by  the  swift  current,  the  canoe  is  turned  toward  the  shore, 
but  the  stop  is  only  for  a  moment. 

At  last  a  new  railroad  grade  comes  in  sight,  with  gangs 
of  men  at  work.  The  valley  of  the  Skagit  contains  one  of 
the  finest  bodies  of  timber  in  Washington,  and  the  rail- 
road is  being  built  for  the  purpose  of  reaching  this  timber. 
There  is  little  other  inducement  for  the  building  of  a  rail- 
road ;  for  beside  a  few  summer  visitors,  the  only  inhab- 
itants are  the  scattered  prospectors  and  miners. 

We  enter  the  train  at  a  little  town  in  the  woods  and  are 
soon  speeding  down  the  valley  toward  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  Clearings  appear  in  the  forest,  and  at  last  the  view 
opens  out  over  extensive  meadows  which  stretch  away, 
almost  as  level  as  a  floor,  to  the  waters  of  the  sound. 
Here  and  there  the  meadows  are  broken  by  forest  trees 
or  irregular  groups  of  farm  buildings.  Rich  lands  form 
the  delta  of  the  Skagit  River.  The  value  of  these  natural 
meadows  was  quickly  recognized  by  the  early  settlers,  for 
not  only  was  the  land  exceedingly  fertile,  but  it  did  not 
have  to  be  cleared  in  order  to  be  transformed  into  produc- 
tive grain-fields. 

For  centuries,  ever  since  the  melting  of  the  great  gla- 
ciers which  once  descended  the  Cascade  Range  and  crept 
down  the  sound,  the  river  has  been  building  this  delta.  It 
grew  rapidly,  for  immense  accumulations  of  gravels  and 
clays  were  left  by  the  retreating  glaciers.  The  delta  has 
already  spread  westward  into  the  sound,  until  it  has  en- 
veloped some  of  the  smaller  islands.  The  forests  growing 
upon  these  islands,  which  rise  from  the  surface  of  the  delta 
plain,  are  in  picturesque  contrast  to  the  fields  dotted  with 
stacks  of  grain. 


THE   SKAGIT    RIVER 


131 


The  delta  is  now  practically  joined  to  the  eastern  side  of 
the  San  Juan  Islands.  The  railroad  reaches  the  islands  by 
means  of  a  trestle  across  the  intervening  tidal  flats,  deliver- 
ing its  load  of  logs  at  the  mills  and  leaving  the  passengers 
at  the  town  of  Anacortes,  where  they  may  take  one  of  the 
many  steamers  passing  up  and  down  the  sound. 


Fig.  57.  —  Tin:  Delta  of  the  Skagit  River 
Enveloping  former  islands  in  Puget  Sound 


Of  all  the  deltas  now  forming  about  Puget  Sound 
that  of  the  Skagit  is  the  largest  and  most  interesting. 
One  might  think  that  the  forests  would  so  protect  the 
slopes  that  erosion  would  not  be  rapid,  but  the  valleys  of 
all  the  tributary  streams  appear  deeply  filled  with  rock 
fragments,  which  have,  for  the  most  part,  accumulated 
from  the  higher  portions  of  the  range,  where  frost  and  ice 
are  slowly  tearing  down  the  cliffs.  At  each  period  of  flood 
some  of  this  material  is  passed  on  to  the  river,  which  in 
turn  drops  it  upon  the  borders  of  its  delta. 


132  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

The  Skagit  River,  from  its  source  to  its  mouth,  takes  the 
traveller  through  varying  climates  and  life  zones,  from  the 
barren  crest  where  the  miner  is  the  only  inhabitant,  down 
through  forests  where  the  lumberman  is  busy,  until  it 
leaves  him  upon   the  rich  meadows  of  its  delta. 


THE   STORY   OF    LAKE   CHELAN 

Chelan  is  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  our  mountain 
lakes.  The  lake  itself  is  most  attractive,  and  the  basin  in 
which  it  lies  has  had  an  interesting  history,  so  that  it  is 
well  worth  study. 

Notwithstanding  the  beauties  of  this  lake,  it  is  not  widely 
known,  for  it  is  situated  far  away  from  the  main  lines  of 
travel,  in  a  remote  canon  of  the  Cascade  Range.  Fortu- 
nately the  lake  and  the  rugged  mountains  about  it  have 
been  included  in  a  forest  reserve,  so  that  they  will  be 
kept  in  all  their  wild  natural  beauty. 

The  Columbia  River,  in  its  crooked  course  across  the 
state  of  Washington,  follows  for  some  distance  the  junction 
of  the  vast  treeless  plateau  of  the  central  portion  and  the 
rugged,  forest-clad  slopes  of  the  Cascade  Range.  We  have 
already  learned  how  the  plateau  grew  to  its  present  extent 
through  the  outpouring  of  successive  floods  of  lava  which 
swept  around  the  higher  mountains  like  an  ocean. 

Many  canons  furrow  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cascade 
Range,  and  terminate  in  the  greater  canon  of  the  Columbia 
at  the  edge  of  the  lava.  One  of  these  canons,  deeper  and 
longer  than  the  rest,  has  been  blocked  by  a  dam  at  its 
lower  end.  Beautiful  Lake  Chelan  lies  in  the  basin  thus 
formed.  It  begins  only  three  miles  from  the  Columbia 
River,  but  winds  for  sixty  miles  among  the  rugged  and 
steep-walled  mountains,  terminating  almost  in  the  heart 
of  the  range. 

»33 


134  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

The  lake  can  be  reached  either  by  crossing  the  moun- 
tains from  Puget  Sound,  over  a  wet  and  difficult  trail,  or 
by  ascending  the  Columbia  River  from  Wenache,  the 
nearest  railroad  station.  The  trip  can  be  made  from  the 
latter  point  either  upon  the  stage  or  river  steamer.  The 
wagon  road  is  very  picturesque,  winding  now  under  lofty 
cliffs  with  the  river  surging  below,  now  along  the  occa- 
sional patches  of  bottom  land  where  in  July  the  orchards 
are  loaded  with  fruit. 

The  first  sight  of  Lake  Chelan  is  disappointing,  for  at 
the  lower  end,  where  the  wagon  road  stops,  there  is  little 
to  suggest  the  remarkable  scenery  farther  back  in  the 
mountains.  Rolling  hills,  covered  with  grass  and  scattered 
pine  trees,  slope  down  to  the  lake,  while  here  and  there 
farmhouses  appear. 

One  cannot  help  asking  at  the  first  view  what  there  is 
about  Lake  Chelan  which  has  made  it,  next  to  Crater  Lake, 
the  most  noted  body  of  water  upon  the  Pacific  slope  of  the 
continent.  But  wait  a  little.  Either  hire  a  rowboat  and  pre- 
pare with  blankets  and  provisions  for  a  camping  trip  about 
the  shores ;  or  if  the  time  is  too  short  for  carrying  out  that 
plan,  take  the  little  steamer  which  makes  tri-weekly  trips  to 
the  hotel  at  the  head  of  the  lake.  Long  before  you  reach 
the  upper  end  you  will  begin  to  appreciate  the  grandeur 
of  the  lake  scenery  in  its  setting  of  steep-walled  mountains. 

Little  of  Lake  Chelan  can  be  seen  at  one  time,  for  its 
course  among  the  mountains  to  the  west  is  a  very  crooked 
one.  The  noisy  steamer  leaves  the  town  at  the  foot  of 
the  lake  and  in  the  course  of  ten  miles  steeper  slopes  begin 
to  close  in  upon  us.  Many  little  homes  are  scattered  along 
this  portion  of  the  lake,  wherever  there  is  a  bit  of  land 
level  enough  to  raise  fruit  and  vegetables. 


THE    STORY    OF    LAKE   CHELAN 


135 


Now  the  mountains  become  more  rugged  and  rise  more 
steeply  from  the  water's  edge.  The  steamer  is  very  slow ; 
it  takes  all  day  to  make  the  sixty  miles,  but  no  one  is  sorry. 
Occasionally  the  whistle  is  sounded  and  the  boat  heads  in 


Fig.  5S.  —  Looking  down  on  Lake  Chelan 


toward  the  land,  where  some  camping  party  is  on  the 
lookout  for  mail  or  a  supply  of  provisions. 

The  lake  averages  less  than  two  miles  in  width,  and 
seems  all  the  narrower  for  being  shut  in  between  gigantic 
mountains.  For  some  miles  we  pass  under  the  precipitous 
cliffs  of  Goat  Mountain,  where  formerly  numerous  herds 
of  mountain  goats  found  pasturage. 

At  every  bend  in  the  lake  the  views  become  more  grand 


136  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

and  inspiring.  Here  is  a  dashing  stream,  roaring  in  a  mad 
tumble  over  the  boulders  into  the  quiet  lake  —  a  stream 
which  has  its  source  perhaps  a  mile  above,  in  some  snow- 
bank hidden  from  sight  by  the  steep,  rocky  walls.  Next  a 
waterfall  comes  into  view,  pouring  over  a  vertical  cliff  into 
the  lake.  Occasionally  snow-clad  peaks  appear,  but  only 
to  disappear  again  behind  the  near  mountains.  What 
pleasant  spots  we  notice  for  camping  by  the  ice-cold  streams! 
They  are  full  of  brook  trout,  while  larger  fish  are  to  be 
found  in  the  lake. 

At  the  head  of  this  body  of  water  there  is  a  little  hotel 
for  the  accommodation  of  visitors,  and  the  Stehekin  River, 
which  is  steadily  at  work  filling  up  the  lake,  hurries  past 
its  doors.  Since  the  melting  of  the  glacier  which  once 
filled  the  canon,  the  river  has  built  a  delta  fully  half  a  mile 
out  into  the  water. 

The  lake  has  the  appearance  of  filling  an  old  river  valley 
or  canon.  Perhaps  the  latter  is  the  better  name  because 
the  bed  is  so  narrow  and  deep.  This  canon  winds  among 
the  mountains  just  like  other  canons  in  which  rivers  are 
flowing,  but  it  has  no  outlet  at  the  present  time.  In  some 
way  a  dam  has  been  formed,  and  the  canon,  filling  with 
water  to  the  top  of  the  dam,  has  become  a  lake. 

Soundings  have  shown  that  the  water  is  fourteen  hun- 
dred feet  deep ;  that  is,  a  little  more  than  a  quarter  of 
a  mile.  With  the  exception  of  Crater  Lake,  in  Oregon, 
this  is  the  deepest  body  of  water  in  the  United  States.  It 
is  also  interesting  to  note  that  the  bottom  of  the  lake  is 
fully  three  hundred  feet  below  the  level  of  the  ocean. 

How  could  a  river  cut  a  channel  for  itself  so  far  below 
the  ocean  level  ?  Rivers  cannot  do  work  of  this  kind 
unless  they  have  a  swift  current ;  moreover,  as  they  empty 


THE   STORY   OF   LAKE   CHELAN 


137 


into  the  ocean,  their  beds  must  be  above  sea  level.  Some 
people  think  that  the  great  glacier,  which  certainly  at  some 
time  occupied  the  depression  in  which  the  lake  lies,  dug 
out  the  canon.  This  glacier  was  over  three  thousand  feet 
in  thickness,  for  the  rocks  are  grooved  and  polished  to  a 
height  of  nearly  two  thousand  feet  above  the  surface  of 


Fig.  59.  —  Goat  Mountain,  North  Shore  of  Lake  Chelan 

the  water.  It  is,  nevertheless,  improbable  that  the  glacier 
did  anything  more  than  deepen  and  widen  the  canon  some- 
what. It  was  certainly  made,  as  we  at  first  supposed,  by 
a  river  which  flowed  through  it  at  some  remote  period. 
At  that  time  the  land  of  our  Pacific  coast  must  have  stood 
many  hundred  feet  higher  than  it  does  now. 

The  surface  of  Lake  Chelan  is  a  little  more  than  three 
hundred  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  Columbia  River,  which 


138  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

flows  through  a  deep  canon  only  three  miles  distant.  If 
we  could  remove  the  dam  of  glacial  boulders  and  gravel  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  lake,  the  water  would  be  lowered  only 
three  hundred  feet.  The  lake  would  not  be  drained,  for 
it  is  very  much  deeper.  Now  here  is  another  puzzle  for 
us  :  the  bottom  of  the  lake  is  more  than  one  thousand  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Columbia.  We  shall  have  to  go  still 
farther  back  into  the  past  to  get  a  satisfactory  explanation 
this  time. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  ago  there  was  no 
plateau  filling  central  Washington,  and  no  Columbia  River 
crossing  it.  The  Cascade  Range  stood  where  we  see  it 
to-day,  and  the  region  of  the  plateau  was  a  broad  valley, 
toward  which  flowed  the  streams  that  had  already  cut 
canons  upon  the  eastern  side  of  the  range.  These  streams 
probably  united  in  a  river  emptying  westward  into  the 
Pacific  by  a  course  now  unknown.  The  shores  of  the 
ocean  were  farther  west  than  at  present,  for  the  land 
stood  higher. 

The  canon  of  Lake  Chelan  was  made  by  a  river  of  this 
period,  which  through  many  long  years  gradually  deep- 
ened and  enlarged  its  channel.  The  river  worked  just  as 
we  see  rivers  working  at  the  present  time,  for  throughout 
all  the  history  of  the  earth  rivers  have  not  changed  their 
habits.  Then  came  the  long  period  of  volcanic  eruptions. 
Our  Northwest  was  flooded  by  fiery  lava,  which  built  up 
the  Columbia  plateau  and  buried  under  thousands  of  feet 
of  rock  the  old  river  valley  into  which  the  canon  of  Chelan 
emptied. 

Then  streams  of  water  began  to  flow  over  the  plateau 
from  the  higher  mountains  above  the  reach  of  the  lava. 
These  streams  formed  the  Columbia  River,  which  sought 


THE    STORY   OF   LAKE   CHELAN 


139 


the  easiest  way  to  the  sea,  and  finally  excavated  a  canon 
for  hundreds  of  miles.  In  a  portion  of  its  course  the  river 
came  close  to  the  edge  of  the  Cascade  Range.  The  ancient 
canon  of  Lake  Chelan  had  been  dammed  up  by  the  lava, 
and  a  lake  occupied   a  portion  of  the  former  bed  of  the 


Fig.  60.  —  Looking  down  Lake  Chelan  from  the  Upper  End 


river.      The    Columbia    could    not    cut   its    channel    deep 
enough  to  drain  the  lake,  and  there  it  remained. 

Then  another  change  came  :  the  climate  grew  cold  and 
heavy  snows  gathered  upon  the  Cascade  Range.  The  snow 
did  not  all  melt  during  the  summers,  but  went  on  increas- 
ing from  year  to  year.  The  masses  of  snow  moved  gradu- 
ally down  the  mountain  slopes,  growing  more  and  more 
icy  until  they  became  true  glaciers. 


140  THE  WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

In  this  manner  it  came  about  that  a  river  of  ice  occupied 
the  canon  in  which  the  old  lake  lay,  and,  displacing  its 
waters,  scraped  and  ground  out  the  bottom  and  sides.  The 
moving  ice  deposited  the  waste  material  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  canon,  where  it  joined  the  Columbia  River,  the 
canon  of  which  was  also  occupied  by  a  glacier  coming 
from  farther  north.  When  the  glacier  began  to  retreat 
up  the  Chelan  canon,  it  left  a  great  mass  of  rock  debris, 
forming  a  dam  between  its  basin  and  the  Columbia.  After 
the  ice  had  disappeared,  water  collected  in  the  canon  above 
the  dam,  and  the  narrow,  deep  lake  was  formed,  enclosed 
within  granite  walls. 

As  the  snows  melted,  forests  spread  over  the  mountains, 
the  bear,  deer,  and  mountain  goats  came  back  again,  while 
the  streams,  bringing  down  earth  and  rocks,  began  their 
work  of  filling  up  the  lake.  This  task  they  will  succeed  in 
accomplishing  some  day  unless  something  unforeseen  hap- 
pens to  prevent.  A  valley,  composed  partly  of  meadow 
and  partly  of  boulder-covered  slopes,  will  then  have  taken 
the  place  of  the  lake. 


THE    NATIVE    INHABITANTS    OF    THE 
PACIFIC    SLOPE 

The  explorers  and  early  settlers  found  a  native  race 
occupying  nearly  every  portion  of  our  continent.  These 
people  had  many  characteristics  in  common  and  were  all 
called  Indians.  It  is  believed  that  they  came  originally 
from  Asia,  but  their  migration  and  scattering  occurred  so 
long  ago  that  they  have  become  divided  into  many  groups, 
each  having  its  own  language  and  customs. 

In  the  western  portion  of  the  country,  where  the  sur- 
face is  broken  by  numerous  barriers,  such  as  mountains 
and  deserts,  almost  every  valley  was  found  to  be  occupied 
by  a  distinct  group  of  Indians  called  a  "  tribe."  The  lan- 
guage of  each  tribe  differed  so  much  from  the  languages 
of  adjoining  tribes  that  they  could  with  difficulty  under- 
stand one  another.  These  tribes  were  almost  continually 
at  war. 

The  Indians  upon  the  Pacific  slope  were  generally 
found  to  be  inferior  in  most  respects  to  those  living  in  the 
central  and  eastern  portions  of  the  continent.  One  might 
suppose  that  the  tribes  possessing  the  fair  and  fertile 
valleys  of  California  would  be  the  most  advanced  in  civ- 
ilization, but  such  was  not  the  case.  Many  of  them  were 
among  the  most  degraded  upon  the  continent.  They 
seemed  unable  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  white  man  and 
his  ways,  and  in  the  older  settled  districts  they  have 
now  nearly  disappeared.     In  the  newer    portions   of   the 

141 


142  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

Northwest  and  along  the  coast  toward  Alaska  the  Indians 
have  not  yet  come  into  so  direct  contact  with  the  white 
men,  and  remain  more  nearly  in  their  primitive  condition. 

When  the  Indians  of  central  California  were  first  seen, 
they  wore  but  little  clothing,  and  knew  how  to  con- 
struct only  the  simplest  dwellings  for  protection  from  the 
weather.  They  did  not  cultivate  the  soil,  nor  did  they 
hunt  a  great  deal,  although  the  country  abounded  with 
game.  Along  the  larger  streams  fish  was  an  important 
article  of  food,  but  in  other  places,  acorns,  pine  nuts,  and 
roots  constituted  the  main  supplies.  The  acorns  were 
ground  in  stone  mortars  and  made  into  soup  or  into  a 
kind  of  bread.  These  Indians  have  often  been  called 
Diggers  because  they  depended  so  largely  for  their  living 
upon  the  roots  which  they  dug. 

It  would  seem  natural  that  about  San  Francisco  Bay  the 
natives  should  have  used  canoes,  but,  according  to  early 
travellers,  they  had  none.  When  they  wished  to  go  out 
upon  the  water  they  built  rafts  of  bundles  of  rushes  or 
tules  tied  together. 

At  favorable  points  along  the  shore  the  Indians  col- 
lected for  their  feasts,  and  these  spots  are  now  indicated 
by  heaps  of  shells,  in  some  places  forming  mounds  of  con- 
siderable size.  Many  interesting  implements  have  been 
dug  from  these  mounds,  or  kitchen  middens  as  they  are 
sometimes  called.  In  the  mountains  the  sites  of  the  vil- 
lages are  marked  by  chips  of  obsidian  (a  volcanic  glass  used 
in  making  arrow-tips)  and  by  holes  in  the  flat  surfaces  of 
granitic  rocks  near  some  spring  or  stream.  These  holes 
were  made  for  the  purpose  of  grinding  acorns  or  nuts. 

Many  of  the  Indian  tribes  developed  great  skill  in  the 
weaving  of  baskets,  which  they  used  for  many  different 


NATIVE  INHABITANTS  OF  THE  PACIFIC   SLOPE      143 

pufposes.      The  baskets  are  still  made  in  some  places,  and 
are  much  sought  after  because  of  their  beauty. 

The  Indians  of  northern  California  in  building  their 
homes  dug  round,  shallow  holes,  over  which  poles  were 
bent  in  the  form  of  a  half-circle,  and  then  tied  together 
at  the  top.  Bark  was  laid  upon  the  outside,  and  earth 
was  thrown  over  the  whole  structure. 


*  n : 


Fig.  61.  —  Holes  in  Rock,  made  for  grinding  Food 

"  Sweat  houses  "  were  built  in  much  the  same  manner,  and 
were  used  chiefly  during  the  winter.  When  an  Indian 
wished  to  take  a  sweat,  hot  stones  were  placed  in  one  of 
these  houses,  and  after  he  had  entered  and  all  openings  were 
closed,  he  poured  water  upon  the  stones  until  the  room 
was  filled  with  steam.  After  enduring  this  process  as  long 
as  he  desired,  the  Indian  came  out  and  plunged  into  the 
cold  water  of  a  near-by  stream.  As  may  be  imagined,  such 
a  bath  often  resulted  disastrously  to  the  weak  or  sick. 


144 


THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 


The  fact  that  the  California  Indians  could  support 
themselves  without  any  great  exertion  undoubtedly  had 
the  effect  of  making  them  indolent,  while  in  the  desert 
regions  of   the  Great    Basin    the  struggle  for   something 

to  eat  was  so  se- 
vere that  it  kept 
the  natives  in  a  de- 
graded condition. 

The  Indians  of 
the  Columbia  basin 
built  better  houses 
than  those  farther 
south.  Where  wood 
was  abundant  their 
homes  were  similar 
in  some  respects  to 
those  of  the  coast 
Indians  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  Fish  was  their 
main  article  of  diet.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  when 
salmon  were  plentiful,  each  tribe  or  group  of  Indians  estab- 
lished its  camp  near  one  of  the  many  rapids  and  waterfalls 
along  the  Columbia  River.  Large  numbers  of  the  salmon 
were  caught  by  the  use  of  traps.  After  being  partly  dried 
they  were  packed  in  bales  for  winter  use.  The  fish  thus  pre- 
pared were  considered  very  valuable  and  formed  an  article 
of  trade  with  the  tribes  living  farther  from  the  river. 

The  Indians  inhabiting  the  coast  northward  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  were  different  in  many  respects 
from  those  farther  south  or  inland.  They  built  better 
homes,  took  more  pains  with  their  clothing,  were  skilled 
in  the  making  of  canoes,  and  showed  marked  ability  in 
navigating  the  stormy  waters  of  the  channels  and  sounds. 


Fig.  62.  —  California  Indian  Basket 


y.     c 

—     '-> 


<    > 


PC       0 


o   ; 


x 


Bntsi 


146 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


The  Vancouver  Island  Indians  are  called  Nootkas,  from 
the  name  of  an  important  tribe  upon  the  west  coast.  Those 
of  Queen  Charlotte  Islands,  still  farther  north,  are  known 
as  Haidas.  These  two  groups  are  very  similar.  They  live 
upon  the  shores  of  densely  wooded,  mountainous  lands  and 
travel  little  except  by  water.  Some  of  the  canoes  which 
these  tribes  construct  are  over  fifty  feet  long  and  will  easily 
carry  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  persons.  Such  a  canoe  is 
hewn  out  of  a  single  cedar  log,  and  presents  a  very  grace- 
ful appearance  with  its  upward- 
curving  bow.  In  these  boats 
the  Indians  take  trips  of  hun- 
dreds of  miles. 

A  ride  in  one  of  the  large 
canoes  is  an  interesting  expe- 
rience. When  a  party  starts 
out  to  visit  the  neighboring 
villages,  carrying  invitations 
to  a  festival,  the  men  are  gayly 
dressed,  and  shout  and  sing  in 
unison  as  they  ply  their  pad- 
dles. The  great  canoe  jumps 
up  and  onward  like  a  living 
thing  at  every  stroke  of  the 
paddles,  which  are  dipped  into 
the  water  all  at  once  as  the 
rowers  keep  time  to  their  songs.  But  this  enthusiasm 
quickly  disappears  if  a  head  wind  comes  up,  and  the 
party  goes  ashore  to  wait  for  the  breeze  to  turn  in  a 
more  favorable  direction. 

These  Indians,  as  might  be  supposed,  live  largely  upon 
fish.      Berries    are  abundant  during:  the  summer    and  are 


Fig.     64.  —  Fi.a  1  head     [ndian 
Woman,  Vancoi  \  er  Island 


NATIVE   INHABITANTS  OF  THE   PACIFIC   SLOPE      147 

also  much  used  for  food.  The  clothing  of  the  Indians 
was  originally  a  sort  of  blanket  made  of  the  woven  fibres 
of  cedar  bark,  or  more  rarely,  of  the  skins  of  animals, 
although  among  the  northern  tribes  skins  were  used  almost 
exclusively.  Matting  made  of  the  cedar  bark  is  still  in 
common  use  in  their  houses. 


Fig.  65.  —  Indian  Houses,  Fort  Rupert,  Vancouver  Island 


Among  the  Vancouver  Island  Indians,  a  few  have  pe- 
culiarly flattened  foreheads  (Fig.  64).  This  deformity  is 
produced  by  binding  a  piece  of  board  upon  the  forehead 
in  babyhood  and  leaving  it  there  while  the  head  is 
growing. 

The  villages  are  located  in  some  protected  spot  where 
the  canoes  can  lie  in   safety.     The   buildings  are  strung 


148  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

along  the  shore  close  under  the  edge  of  the  thick  forest 
and  just  above  the  reach  of  the  waves  at  high  tide.  They 
are  very  solidly  constructed,  for  these  Indians  do  not  move 
about  as  much  as  those  farther  south  where  the  forests  are 
less  dense.  Figure  65  shows  the  framework  of  a  partially 
built  house,  while  another  stands  at  one  side  completed. 
Large  posts  are  set  in  the  ground  at  the  corners  and  ends 
of  the  building ;  cross  logs  are  then  placed  upon  the  middle 
posts,  and  upon  these  a  huge  log  is  placed  for  a  ridge- 
pole. This  is  sometimes  two  feet  in  diameter  and  from 
sixty  to  eighty  feet  long.  It  must  require  the  united 
strength  of  many  men  to  roll  such  a  log  into  position. 
Upon  the  framework  thus  constructed  split  cedar  boards 
are  fastened,  and  the  building  is  practically  finished. 
Such  a  house  is  usually  occupied  by  a  number  of  fami- 
lies. Upon  Queen  Charlotte  Islands  there  is  a  dwelling 
of  this  kind  large  enough  to  hold  seven  hundred  Indians. 

The  fronts  of  the  houses  are  ornamented  with  figures 
hewn  out  of  wood.  These  represent  men,  birds  and 
animals  and  have  a  religious  significance.  Sometimes 
these  figures  are  mounted  upon  the  tops  of  tall  poles. 

The  "  totem  pole  "  is  a  most  interesting  affair.  Figure 
66  represents  the  pole  at  Alert  Bay,  east  of  Vancouver 
Island.  It  is  one  of  the  finest  upon  the  north  coast. 
The  figures  of  animals  and  birds  carved  upon  it  represent 
the  mythological  ancestors  of  the  family  or  clan  in  front 
of  whose  abode  the  pole  stands.  The  Indians  often  hunt 
similar  animals  to-day,  but  believe  that  their  ancestors  had 
supernatural  power  which  raised  them  above  the  ordinary 
creatures. 

The  Chinook  Indians  live  upon  the  lower  Columbia. 
The    name    "chinook"    has  been    given    to  a  warm,  dry 


NATIVE   INHABITANTS   OF  THE  PACIFIC   SLOPE      149 


wind  which  blows  down  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  out  upon 
the  Great  Plains.  This 
wind  is  so  named  because 
it  blows  from  the  direction 
of  the  Chinook  Indians' 
country.  The  "  Chinook  " 
jargon  is  a  strange  sort  of 
mixed  language  with  which 
nearly  all  the  tribes  of  the 
Northwest  are  familiar.  It 
is  formed  of  words  from  the 
Chinook  language,  together 
with  others  from  different 
Indian  languages,  French- 
Canadian,  and  English. 
Through  the  influence  of 
the  trappers  and  traders 
the  "Chinook"  has  come 
into  wide  use,  so  that  by 
means  of  it  conversation 
can  be  carried  on  with 
tribes  speaking  different 
languages. 

Although  there  are  so 
many  different  tribes,  with 
great  diversities  of  lan- 
guage, throughout  the 
West,  they  were  probably 
all  derived  from  the  same 
source.     As  we  go  north  the  similarity  between  the  coast 


Fig.  66. —Totem  Pole 
Alert  Bay,  British  Columbia 


150  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

Indians  and  the  inhabitants  of  eastern  Asia  becomes  more 
noticeable.  It  seems  almost  certain  that  these  American 
Indians  originally  came  across  the  narrow  strip  of  water 
separating  Asia  from  America. 

We  do  not  know  how  long  the  Indians  have  occupied 
our  country,  but  it  has  probably  been  several  thousand 
years.  Some  of  the  main  groups  have  undoubtedly  been 
here  longer  than  others. 

Unless  we  protect  the  Indians  and  permit  them  so  far 
as  possible  to  lead  their  own  natural  lives,  most  of  them 
will  soon  disappear. 


1 


THE   STORY   OF    LEWIS    AND   CLARK 

In  the  seventeenth  century  it  appeared  likely  that  France 
would  before  long  control  the  northern  and  interior  portion 
of  North  America.  La  Salle  discovered  the  Ohio  River, 
traversed  the  Great  Lakes,  and  descended  the  Mississippi 
River  to  its  mouth.  In  T742  other  French  explorers 
pushed  west  from  the  Great  Lakes  and  sighted  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  But  when  the  English  triumphed  at  Quebec, 
France  gave  up  to  them  all  of  her  possessions  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  and  ceded  the  province  of  Louisiana  to 
the  Spanish.  This  province  was  very  much  larger  than 
the  state  which  now  bears  the  name.  Bounded  by  the 
Mississippi  River  upon  the  east,  and  the  Spanish  posses- 
sions upon  the  southwest,  it  stretched  north  and  west  with 
very  indefinite  boundaries,  although  in  the  latter  direction 
it  was  supposed  to  be  limited  by  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

At  one  time  Napoleon  dreamed  of  founding  a  great 
colony  in  America,  and  induced  Spain  to  cede  Louisiana 
back  to  the  French  ;  but  being  unable  to  carry  out  his 
plans,  lie  made  a  proposition  to  the  United  States  to  take 
this  territory.  His  offer  was  accepted,  and  in  1803,  during 
the  presidency  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  the  vast  province  was 
taken  into  the  Union. 

It  was  immediately  evident  that  more  definite  knowledge 
should  be  acquired  concerning  the  great  region  beyond  the 
Mississippi,  particularly  the  portion  about  the  head  of  the 
Missouri    River.       The    unknown    region    lying    between 

I5I 


152  THE    WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

the  source  of  this  river  and  the  Pacific  should  also  be 
explored,  for  Captain  Gray's  discovery  of  the  Columbia 
River  gave  to  the  United  States  a  claim  upon  this  part  of 
the  continent  which  must  be  maintained.  If  something 
were  not  done  soon,  the  territory  would  be  occupied  by 
the  English  fur  companies. 

Two  young  men,  Captains  Lewis  and  Clark,  were  chosen 
to  lead  an  expedition  into  the  Northwest,  which  proved  to 
be  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  the  history  of  our  coun- 
try. They  were  the  first  white  men  to  cross  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  to  traverse  the  continent  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific  within  the  present  boundaries  of  the  United 
States. 

How  interesting  it  must  have  been  to  push  into  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  beyond  the  farthest  point  previously 
reached  by  white  men  ;  to  see  Nature  in  her  wild  state,  to 
note  the  new  plants  and  animals,  and  to  study  the  Indians 
before  their  contact  with  Europeans  had  changed  their 
customs  ! 

Lewis  and  Clark  were  particularly  instructed  to  investi- 
gate the  sources  of  the  Missouri,  to  learn  how  the  conti- 
nental divide  could  be  crossed,  and  to  ascertain  the  nature 
of  the  streams  which  flowed  westward  to  the  Pacific.  They 
were  also  to  study  the  resources  of  the  country,  and  to 
examine  into  the  character  and  customs  of  all  the  Indian 
tribes  that  they  should  meet. 

The  start  was  made  from  St.  Louis  in  May,  1804,  with 
two  large  rowboats  and  one  sail-boat.  The  latter  was  to 
return  with  news  of  the  party  when  the  farthest  outpost 
upon  the  Missouri  was  reached. 

Through  the  summer  months  and  late  into  the  fall  the 
boats  toiled  up  the  river  against  the  swift  current,  finally 


THE    STORY   OF    LEWIS    AND   CLARK 


153 


reaching  a  village  of  the  Mandan  Indians  in  the  present 
state  of  North  Dakota,  where  the  explorers  spent  the 
winter.  Thus  far  they  were  in  a  region  frequently  visited 
by  the  traders  and  trappers  from  St.  Louis. 


Fig.  67.  —  The  Great  Falls  of  the  Missouri 


In  the  spring  they  pushed  on  again  in  canoes,  at  length 
entering  an  unknown  region.  The  Missouri  forked  so  fre- 
quently that  it  was  often  difficult  to  determine  which  was 
the  main  stream.  To  the  surprise  of  the  travellers,  the 
country  appeared  to  be  uninhabited,  so  that  they  could  get 
no  assistance  from  the  Indians.  Only  a  small  stock  of 
provisions  remained,  and  as  the  party  numbered  about 
thirty,  it  was  necessary  to  keep  hunters  out  in  advance  all 
the  time. 


154  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

As  we  are  carried  swiftly  through  this  region  to-day  in 
the  cars,  no  signs  of  wild  creatures  are  to  be  seen,  and  it  is 
difficult  for  us  to  believe  that  game  was  once  abundant. 
The  narrative  of  the  expedition  abounds  with  descriptions 
of  various  large  animals  which  the  explorers  met  in  herds, 
such  as  deer,  antelope,  buffalo,  bears,  and  wolves.  The 
bears,  both  white  and  brown,  were  very  numerous  and 
bold.  The  white  bears  in  particular  were  so  ferocious 
that  the  hunters  had  many  serious  encounters  with  them. 
They  would  sometimes  enter  the  camp  at  night,  and  at 
one  time  a  herd  of  buffalo  stampeded  through  it. 

When  undecided  at  one  point  which  branch  of  the  river 
to  follow,  Captain  Lewis  went  some  distance  in  advance 
and  discovered  the  Great  Falls  of  the  Missouri.  He  was 
greatly  impressed  and  awed  by  the  magnitude  and  height 
of  the  successive  falls,  which  were  twenty-four,  forty-seven, 
and  eighty  feet  high  respectively,  and  were  connected  by 
a  series  of  cascades. 

Many  days  were  spent  there  in  a  long  and  laborious 
portage,  for  everything  had  to  be  carried  a  distance  of 
twelve  miles  before  the  quiet  water  above  the  falls  was 
reached. 

How  the  coming  of  the  white  man  has  changed  the 
region  about  the  falls  !  The  game  has  disappeared  ;  an 
important  city,  supported  by  the  enormous  water-power,  is 
growing  up  ;  while  the  smoke  rising  from  extensive  plants 
for  reducing  the  gold,  silver,  and  copper  ores  mined  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  floats  out  over  the  country. 

Proceeding  up  the  river,  the  party  reached  the  Gate 
of  the  Mountains  —  a  picturesque  spot  where  the  stream 
leaves  the  mountains  through  a  narrow  defile  between  high 
and  jagged  cliffs  and  enters  upon  its  long  course  across 


THE    STORY    OF   LEWIS   AND   CLARK 


155 


the  Great  Plains  (Fig.  68).  Gradually  the  river  became 
smaller,  and  at  last  the  travellers  came  to  the  point  where 
it  divided  into  three  branches,  to  which  they  gave  the 
names  of    Gallatin,  Madison,  and   Jefferson   forks.      The 


Fig.  68.  —  The  Gate  ov  the  Mountains 
The  Missouri  River  at  the  entrance  to  the  Rocky  Mountains 


party  made  their   way  up  the   latter   fork,  which   flowed 
from  a  westerly  direction. 

Now  they  began  to  look  anxiously  for  the  Indians,  from 
whom  it  would  be  necessary  to  get  horses  to  transport 
their  baggage  when  the  river  should  become  too  small  for 
the  canoes.  This  region  was  inhabited  by  the  Shoshones. 
It  may  well  be  asked  how  it   happened   that  these  Ind- 


156  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

ians  had  horses,  since  no  white  people  had  ever  visited 
them  before.  Their  purchase  of  horses  came  about 
through  the  processes  of  trade  with  the  tribes  to  the  south, 
who  in  turn  came  in  contact  with  the  Spanish  of  New 
Mexico. 

One  or  the  other  of  the  leaders  kept  in  advance,  on  the 
lookout  for  the  Indians.  At  last  Captain  Lewis,  while 
crossing  the  divide  at  the  head  of  the  stream  which  they 
had  been  following,  came  suddenly  upon  several  Indians. 
After  overcoming  their  fear  by  presents,  he  accompanied 
them  to  their  camp  and  induced  them  to  return  with  horses 
to  assist  the  party. 

Upon  reaching  the  Pacific  side  of  the  continental 
divide  the  explorers  were  in  doubt  as  to  which  way  to 
proceed.  No  man  had  been  before  them,  and  the  Indians 
told  stories  of  fearful  deserts  to  the  southwest  (prob- 
ably the  Snake  River  plains),  and  said  that  the  moun- 
tains were  too  steep  for  the  horses,  and  the  rivers  too 
rapid  for  canoes. 

If  you  will  examine  a  map  of  the  country  about  the 
head  of  the  Jefferson  fork  of  the  Missouri,  you  will  not 
wonder  that  Captains  Lewis  and  Clark  were  in  doubt  as  to 
which  way  they  should  go  in  order  to  reach  the  Columbia. 
They  first  attempted  to  go  down  the  Salmon  River,  but 
soon  gave  up  this  project.  They  turned  about  and  crossed 
the  mountains  to  the  Bitter  Root  River,  which  flows  north 
and  empties  into  Lake  Pend  d'Oreille  through  Clark's  Fork 
of  the  Columbia. 

After  going  down  the  Bitter  Root  for  a  short  distance 
they  turned  west  again  across  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains 
and  came  out  upon  the  head  waters  of  the  Kooskooskie 
River.      Unable  to  follow  its  canons,  they  wandered  to  the 


THE   STORY   OF   LEWIS   AND   CLARK 


157 


north  among  the  mountains.  At  this  time  their  sufferings 
were  intense.  Food  became  so  scarce  that  they  were 
obliged  to  eat  their  horses.  After  many  weary  days  they 
again  reached  the  stream,  but  this  time  at  a  point  where  it 
was  navigable.     They  floated  down  to  its  junction  with  the 


Fig.  69.  —  Celilo  Falls,  Columbia  River 


Lewis  or  Snake  River,  where  the  growing  city  of  Lewis- 
ton  now  stands.  At  this  point  they  met  the  Nez  Perces 
Indians,  who  assisted  them  in  every  possible  way. 

The  party  continued  down  the  Snake  River  in  canoes 
until  they  finally  reached  the  Columbia.  The  difficulties 
of  navigation  were  great,  for  at  intervals  of  every  few 
miles  the  river  was  broken  by  rapids  through  which  it  was 


158  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

dangerous  to  take  the  canoes.  By  treating  the  Indians 
kindly,  the  party  succeeded  in  trading  with  them  for  such 
articles  of  food  as  horses  and  dogs.  They  also  obtained 
some  salmon.  The  presence  of  this  fish  in  the  streams 
gave  them  the  first  assurance  that  the  Pacific  slope  had 
been  reached.  Along  the  Columbia  River  salmon  was  one 
of  the  chief  articles  of  food  for  the  Indians. 

At  Celilo  Falls,  a  short  distance  above  the  present  city 
of  The  Dalles,  the  travellers  found  great  difficulty  in  pro- 
ceeding, as  the  canoes  and  loads  had  to  be  carried,  or 
"portaged,"  around  the  falls.  Lewis  and  Clark  called 
these  the  Great  Falls  of  the  Columbia  (Fig.  69). 

As  the  canoes  floated  down  through  the  magnificent 
canon  by  which  the  Columbia  passes  the  Cascade  Range, 
they  encountered  another  rapid,  now  known  as  the  Cas- 
cades of  the  Columbia.  This  rapid  is  due  to  a  great 
landslide  which  has  formed  a  dam  across  the  river.  Cap- 
tain Lewis  speaks  of  the  broken  trunks  of  trees  rising 
from  the  water  above  the  dam,  a  fact  which  would  lead 
one  to  suppose  that  it  had  not  been  very  long  since  the 
slide  occurred. 

Below  the  Cascades  the  party  soon  began  to  notice  the 
influence  of  the  tides  in  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  river,  and 
knew  then  that  the  Pacific  could  not  be  very  far  away. 
Early  in  November  they  came  in  sight  of  the  ocean,  and 
in  a  few  days  had  the  pleasure  of  standing  upon  its  shores. 
The  long  and  dangerous  trip  of  four  thousand  miles  had 
been  completed  without  any  serious  accident. 

Continual  rains  poured  upon  them,  and  before  winter 
quarters  could  be  prepared  they  were  in  a  very  uncom- 
fortable position.  A  permanent  camp  was  selected  upon 
the  Oregon  side  of  the  Columbia,  and  log  buildings  were 


THE    STORY    OF    LEWIS    AND   CLARK 


'59 


erected.  The  camp  was  called  Fort  Clatsop.  While  in 
their  winter  quarters  the  party  cultivated  friendly  relations 
with  the  Indians,  and  made  extensive  notes  upon  their 
habits  and  characteristics. 

In  the  spring,  since  no  ship  had  appeared  which  would 
carry  them  back  by  water,  Lewis  and  Clark  determined  to 
return  overland.     First,  however,  they  left  some  records 


Fig.  70. —  The  Cascades  of  the  Columbia 
A  steamer  going  up  to  the  locks 


with  the  Indians,  with  directions  that  these  should  be 
given  to  the  captain  of  any  ship  which  might  happen 
to  visit  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  The  leaders  wished 
to  make  sure  that  if  anything  happened  to  the  party 
the  knowledge  gained  by  their  explorations  should  not 
be  lost. 

One  can  imagine  with  what   pleasure  the  men   turned 
homeward.      Although  they  had   started  with  Hour,  rice, 


160  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

corn,  and  other  articles  of  food,  these  had  given  out  long 
before  they  reached  the  lower  Columbia,  and  for  some 
months  their  only  diet  had  been  fish  and  the  animals  that 
the  hunters  had  killed.  Their  stock  for  trading  with  the 
Indians  was  also  nearly  gone;  all  the  articles  that  were 
left  could  be  put  into  two  pocket  handkerchiefs. 

After  ascending  the  Columbia  River  to  a  point  above 
The  Dalles,  the  party  left  the  stream,  as  they  found  that 
it  would  be  impossible  to  make  much  headway  with  the 
canoes.  Obtaining  horses  from  the  Indians,  they  fol- 
lowed the  outward  route  back  as  far  as  the  Kooskooskie 
River.  Then  they  turned  north  and  crossed  the  mountains 
to  the  Missoula  River.  Near  the  present  city  of  Missoula 
the  party  divided,  Captain  Lewis  going  up  Hell  Gate  River 
and  crossing  the  continental  divide  to  examine  the  country 
lying  north  of  the  Missouri. 

Captain  Clark,  with  another  portion  of  the  company, 
went  up  the  Bitter  Root  River  and  over  the  mountains  to 
the  Jefferson  Fork,  which  the  whole  party  had  ascended 
the  year  before.  He  followed  this  river  down  to  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Gallatin,  and  travelled  for  a  distance  up  the 
latter  stream,  then  crossed  by  land  to  the  Yellowstone 
River. 

Canoes  were  constructed  upon  the  Yellowstone,  and  the 
party  floated  down  to  the  junction  of  this  river  with  the 
Missouri.  There  the  two  bands  were  fortunately  reunited, 
and  together  they  passed  rapidly  down  the  Missouri  until 
they  reached  the  "village"  of  St.  Louis,  where  the  whole 
population  came  out  to  welcome  them.  As  the  party  had 
been  gone  more  than  two  years,  it  was  feared  that  they 
would  never  be  heard  from  again. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  expedition  of  Lewis  and 


THE    STORY   OF    LEWIS   AND   CLARK  161 

Clark  added  greatly  to  the  public  interest  in  the  vast  region 
which  they  traversed,  and  helped  to  bring  about  the  final 
retention  of  the  Oregon  country.  The  Hudson  Bay  Fur 
Company  soon  after  established  trading  posts  at  various 
points  along  the  Columbia,  and  kept  up  their  contention 
that  all  the  country  lying  north  of  the  river  rightfully 
belonged  to  England. 

It  was  very  remarkable  that  the  Lewis  and  Clark  expe- 
dition had  made  the  long  journey  to  the  Pacific  and  back 
without  meeting  with  serious  accident.  There  were  perils 
to  be  met  on  account  of  the  ruggedness  of  the  country, 
the  rapids  in  the  streams,  the  lack  of  food,  and  the  danger 
of  attack  from  the  Indians.  The  successful  accomplish- 
ment of  the  plan  was  without  a  doubt  largely  due  to  the 
ability  of  the  two  brave  leaders. 


THE    RUSSIANS    IN    CALIFORNIA 

How  many  of  us  know  that  the  Russians  once  estab- 
lished a  post  upon  the  coast  of  California  and  held  it  for 
nearly  a  third  of  a  century  ?  If  the  geographic  conditions 
about  this  post  had  been  different,  it  is  possible  that  the 
Russian  colonists  would  hold  their  position  now. 

The  discoveries  made  upon  the  North  American  coast 
by  the  Russian  navigator,  Bering,  in  1741,  led  to  fur  trad- 
ing with  the  Indians;  and  in  1798  the  Russian  American 
company  was  organized  and  established  its  headquarters 
at  Sitka. 

The  Spaniards  still  claimed  the  whole  Pacific  coast  of 
North  America  as  far  north  as  the  Strait  of  Fuca,  though 
they  had  given  up  their  station  at  Nootka  Sound,  Vancouver 
Island.  They  had,  however,  made  no  settlements  north  of 
the  port  of  San  Francisco. 

It  was  nearly  one  hundred  years  ago  that  Rezanof,  a 
leading  Russian  official,  arrived  at  Sitka  and  began  to  in- 
vestigate the  condition  of  the  settlements  of  the  Russian 
American  Fur  Company.  He  found  them  in  a  sorry  state  ; 
the  people  were  nearly  starved  and  most  of  them  were  sick 
with  the  scurvy.  No  grain  or  vegetables  were  grown  along 
that  northern  coast,  nor  could  they  be  supplied  from  Asia. 
Rezanof  conceived  the  idea  of  establishing  trade  relations 
with  the  people  of  California.  By  this  means  furs  might 
be  exchanged  for  the  fresh  provisions  which  were  so  sorely 
needed  in  the  north. 

162 


THE   RUSSIANS    IN    CALIFORNIA  163 

Rezanof  sailed  south  in  1806  and  tried  to  enter  the 
Columbia  River,  where  the  company  had  planned  to  estab- 
lish a  settlement,  for  upon  the  Russian  maps  of  this  time 
all  of  the  coast  as  far  south  as  the  Columbia  was  included 
under  Russian  jurisdiction.  Rezanof  was,  however,  unable 
to  enter  the  river,  probably  for  the  same  reason  that 
Meares,  the  English  navigator,  had  failed  to  enter.  He 
then  proceeded  clown  the  coast  and  finally  ran  into  the 
port  of  San  Francisco,  where  he  was  treated  in  a  fairly 
polite  manner  by  the  Spanish. 

After  the  return  of  the  expedition  to  the  north,  definite 
plans  were  made  for  the  establishment  of  an  agricultural 
and  trading  station  on  the  California  coast,  as  a  permanent 
supply  depot  for  the  northern  settlements.  Rezanof  hoped 
in  time  to  secure  a  portion  of  this  fair  southern  land  from 
Spain. 

Several  hunting  expeditions,  chiefly  made  up  of  Aleut 
Indians  with  Russian  officers,  were  sent  south  and  told  to 
keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  a  suitable  place  to  begin  operations. 
In  1809  one  expedition  entered  Bodega  Bay,  an  inlet  of  some 
size  about  sixty  miles  northwest  of  San  Francisco.  This 
bay,  which  had  been  previously  discovered  and  named  by 
the  Spaniards,  was  thoroughly  explored  two  years  later. 

No  good  spot  for  a  settlement  was  found  upon  this  inlet, 
but  in  18 1 2  a  location  was  determined  upon,  ten  miles 
north  of  the  mouth  of  the  stream  we  now  know  as  Russian 
River.  There  was  no  good  harbor  here,  simply  a  little 
cove,  but  back  of  this  cove  a  broad  grassy  tract  formed  a 
gently  sloping  terrace  at  the  foot  of  a  line  of  hills.  The 
soil  was  good  and  timber  was  near  at  hand. 

The  Russians  first  made  friends  with  the  Indians,  who 
ceded  to  them  the  territory  in  the  neighborhood  for  three 


164  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

blankets,  three  pair  of  breeches,  three  hoes,  two  axes,  and 
some  trinkets. 

In  order  to  protect  themselves  from  possible  Indian 
attacks  as  well  as  to  be  able  to  hold  their  position  against 
the  Spanish,  the  Russians  constructed  a  strong  stockade. 
It  was  made  of  upright  posts  set  in  the  ground  and  pierced 
with  loopholes.  At  the  corners,  and  a  little  distance 
within,  were  erected  two  hexagonal  blockhouses  with  open- 
ings for  cannon.  As  it  happened,  however,  no  occasion 
ever  arose  for  the  use  of  the  ten  cannon  with  which  the 
fort  was  supplied.  The  post  was  given  the  name  Ross,  a 
word  which  forms  the  root  of  the  word  Russia. 

The  Spanish,  of  course,  claimed  the  territory  by  right  of 
discovery,  and  watched  the  work  of  the  Russians  with 
jealous  eyes.  They  were  not  strong  enough  to  drive  the 
Russians  away  by  force,  although  they  protested  more 
than  once  against  the  unlawful  occupation  of  the  land. 
Some  trading  was  carried  on  between  the  Russians  and 
the  Spanish,  and  occasionally  loads  of  grain  and  cattle 
were  sent  north. 

The  number  of  people  at  Fort  Ross  varied  from  one 
hundred  and  fifty  to  five  hundred.  The  population  consisted 
of  Russians,  Aleuts,  and  other  Indians.  The  Aleuts  were 
the  hunters  and  sealers.  They  spent  their  time  upon  the 
ocean,  sometimes  entering  San  Francisco  Bay,  but  usually 
hunting  in  the  region  of  the  Farralone  Islands,  which  were 
originally  inhabited  by  great  herds  of  fur  seal.  There 
were  also  otters,  sea-lions,  and  an  infinite  number  of  sea- 
birds.  A  station  was  maintained  upon  the  Farralones, 
where  a  few  men  stayed  to  gather  birds'  eggs  and  kill  sea- 
gulls. Many  thousands  of  gulls  were  taken  each  year,  and 
every  part  of  their  bodies  was  utilized  for  some  purpose. 


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1 66  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

Kotzebue,  a  Russian  navigator,  whose  name  has  been 
given  to  a  sound  upon  northern  Alaska,  visited  Fort  Ross 
and  also  San  Francisco  Bay.  He  considered  it  a  great 
pity  that  the  Russians  had  not  gained  possession  of  this 
territory  before  the  Spaniards,  for  the  magnificent  bay  of 
San  Francisco,  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  country,  would 
have  been  a  prize  worth  working  for. 

Year  after  year  the  Russian  Fur  Company  sent  expedi- 
tions to  California  to  trade  and  bring  back  provisions. 
They  tried  to  extend  the  area  under  their  jurisdiction,  but 
the  geographical  conditions  of  the  country  were  unfavor- 
able. The  narrow  strip  of  land  next  the  coast  was  cut 
off  from  the  interior  valleys  by  mountain  ridges  and 
canons.  If  the  Sonoma  Valley  had  opened  westward 
instead  of  toward  San  Francisco  Bay,  it  would  have  been 
easy  to  extend  their  territory  gradually.  As  it  was,  the 
Spanish,  who  were  in  control  of  the  bay,  had  easy  access 
to  all  of  the  fertile  valleys  of  central  California. 

As  the  sealing  industry  decreased  in  importance,  and  as 
the  maintenance  of  Fort  Ross  was  expensive,  the  Russians 
in  1839  began  to  consider  the  question  of  giving  up  their 
post.  They  finally  sold  everything  at  Ross  and  Bodega, 
except  the  land,  to  Sutter,  an  American  who  had  acquired 
a  large  ranch  and  established  a  post  or  fort  at  the  mouth 
of  the  American  River.  In  1841  the  Russians  sailed 
away,  never  to  return.  The  Spaniards  wore  greatly 
relieved  when  this  happened,  for  they  had  not  known 
how  to  get  rid  of  their  unwelcome  neighbors  peaceably, 
and  were  reluctant  to  stir  up  trouble  with   Russia. 

The  stockade  at  Fort  Ross  has  entirely  disappeared, 
but  two  blockhouses,  the  little  chapel,  and  the  officers' 
quarters  remain  as  the  Russians  left  them. 


THE    RUSSIANS    IN    CALIFORNIA 


167 


Fort  Ross  is  now  a  pleasant,  quiet  hamlet.  A  store 
and  a  farm-house  have  been  added  to  the  old  buildings. 
Behind  the  sloping  meadows  rise  the  partly  wooded  hills, 
while  in  front  lies  the  little  bay  where  once  the  boats  of 
the   Russian    and    Aleut   seal  hunters  moved  to  and  fro. 


Fig;  72.  —  Russian  Blockhouse,  Fort  Ross 

Occasionally  a  small  schooner  visits  the  cove  for  the  pur- 
pose of  loading  wood  or  tan-bark  for  the  San  Francisco 
market. 

Fort  Ross  was  never  marked  by  serious  strife  and  seems 
destined  to  go  on  in  its  quiet  way.  The  blockhouses  are 
rotting  and  beginning  to  lean  with  age,  and  in  time  all 
evidences  of  the  once  formidable  Russian  post  will  have 
disappeared. 


DEATH  VALLEY 

To  most  of  us  Death  Valley  is  thought  of  only  as  a 
mysterious  region  somewhere  in  the  Southwest,  a  place 
which  we  are  accustomed  to  picture  to  ourselves  as  being 
the  embodiment  of  everything  that  is  desolate  and  lifeless, 
— a  region  where  there  is  no  water,  where  there  are  no 
living  things,  simply  bare  rocks  and  sand  upon  which  the 
sun  beats  pitilessly  and  over  which  the  scorching  winds 
blow  in  clouds  of  dust.  The  reality  is  hardly  so  bad  as 
this,  for  there  are  living  things  in  the  valley,  and  water 
may  occasionally  be  found.  Nevertheless  it  is  a  fearful 
spot  in  summer,  and  has  become  the  final  resting  place  of 
many  wanderers  in  these  desert  regions,  who  having  drunk 
all  their  water  failed  to  find  more. 

We  have  already  learned  something  about  the  Great 
Basin :  we  know  that  it  is  made  up  of  vast  desert  plains 
or  valleys,  separated  by  a  few  partly  isolated  moun- 
tain ranges.  The  valleys  are  peculiar  in  that  they  are 
basins  without  outlets,  and  for  this  reason  are  known  as 
sinks.  Many  of  the  lakes  once  occupying  the  valleys 
are  now  quite  or  nearly  dry,  and  the  lower  portions  of 
their  beds  are  either  whitened  with  deposits  of  borax  and 
soda,  or  have  been  transformed  into  barren  expanses  of 
hardened  yellow  clay. 

The  long,  gentle  slopes  about  the  sinks,  which  have  been 
built  up  by  the  waste  rock  from  the  mountains,  as  a  result 
of  the  occasional  cloudbursts  are  dotted  with  sage-brush, 

1 68 


DEATH    VALLEY  169 

greasewood,  or  other  low  plants,  and  furnish  a  home  for 
numerous  animals. 

Back  of  the  gravel  slopes  rise  the  mountains,  browned 
under  the  fierce  rays  of  the  summer  sun.  In  some  of 
their  deeper  canons  little  springs  and  streams  are  found, 
but  the  water  usually  dries  up  before  leaving  the  protect- 
ing shadows  of  the  cliffs.  Toward  the  mountain  tops  the 
desert  juniper  appears;  and  if  the  peaks  rise  high  enough 
to  get  more  of  the  moisture  of  the  cooler  air,  they  support 
groves  of  the  pinon  and  possibly  yellow  pine. 

The  valleys  are  all  much  alike.  In  summer  the  days 
are  unbearably  hot,  while  in  winter  the  air  is  cool  and  in- 
vigorating. The  skies  are  overcast  for  only  a  few  days 
in  the  year,  but  in  the  autumn  and  spring  fierce  winds, 
laden  with  dust  and  sand,  sweep  across  the  valleys  and 
through  the  mountain  passes. 

Strange  rock  forms,  of  many  contrasting  colors,  worn 
out  by  wind  and  water,  mark  the  desert  mountains.  The 
granite  wears  a  brown,  sunburned  coat,  while  the  masses 
of  black  lava  show  here  and  there  patches  of  pink,  yellow, 
and  red.  The  air  is  often  so  wondrously  clear  that  distant 
mountains  seem  much  nearer  than  they  really  are.  Dur- 
ing the  hot  summer  days  the  mirage  forms  apparent  lakes 
and  shady  groves,  illusions  which  have  lured  many  a  thirsty 
traveller  to  his  death. 

Death  Valley  is  the  lowest  and  hottest  of  the  desert 
basins.  Its  surface,  over  four  hundred  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  sea,  is  the  lowest  dry  land  in  the  United  States. 
The  valley  is  long  and  narrow  and  enclosed  by  mountains. 
Those  upon  the  east  are  known  as  the  Funeral  Mountains, 
while  upon  the  west  the  peaks  of  the  Panamint  Range 
rise  to  a  height  of  about  ten  thousand  feet. 


\yo 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


If  the  rainfall  were  greater,  Death  Valley  would  be 
occupied  by  a  salt  or  alkaline  lake,  but  in  this  dry  region 
lakes  cannot  exist,  and  the  bottom  of  the  sink,  sometimes 
marshy  after  exceptional  winter  rains,  is  in  many  places 
almost  snowy  white  from  deposits  of  salt,  soda,  or  borax. 

Death  Valley,  then,  differs  from  scores  of  other  valleys 
in  the  Great  Basin  by  being  a  little  lower,  a  little  hotter, 
and  a  little  more  arid.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  old  pros- 
pectors say  that  Death  Valley  is  the  best  watered  of  all 
the  desert  valleys.  Since  it  is  the  lowest  spot  in  all  the 
surrounding  country,  the  scanty  water  supply  all  flows 
toward  it.  But  the  water  runs  under  the  gravels  of  the 
old  river  beds  instead  of  on  the  top,  where  it  might  be 
utilized.  Occasionally,  however,  the  water  comes  to  the 
surface  in  the  form  of  springs,  which  are  marked  by  a 
few  willows  or  mesquite  trees  and  little  patches  of  salt 
grass. 

Long  ago,  when  the  rainfall  was  greater,  Death  Valley 
was  a  saline  lake  and  received  a  number  of  streams,  two 
of  which  were  large  enough  to  be  called  rivers.  The 
Amargoza  River,  starting  from  Nevada  and  pursuing  a 
roundabout  way,  entered  the  southern  end  of  the  valley. 
The  Mohave  River,  which  rises  in  the  San  Bernardino 
Range,  also  emptied  into  the  valley  at  one  time,  but  now 
its  waters,  absorbed  by  the  thirsty  air  and  by  the  sands, 
disappear  in  the  sink  of  the  Mohave  fifty  miles  to  the 
south. 

The  summer  is  the  dreaded  season  in  Death  Valley. 
A  temperature  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  degrees 
has  been  reported  by  the  Pacific  Coast  Borax  Company 
at  the  mouth  of  Furnace  Creek.  This  temperature  was 
recorded  in  the  shade,  and  is  the  hottest  ever  experienced  in 


DEATH    VALLEY 


171 


the  United  States.  In  the  sun  it  is  of  course  much  hotter. 
Many  a  person  has  lost  his  life  in  trying  to  cross  the  heated 
valley  in  the  middle  of  a  summer  day  instead  of  making 
the  journey  at  night. 

Dangerous  as  this  region  is,  even  now  when  we  know- 
so  much  about  it,  it  was  of  course  much  more  dangerous 


Fig.  73.  —  Entering  Death  Valley 

for  the  first  white  men  who  entered  it.  Only  those  who 
have  had  some  experience  upon  the  desert  can  realize  the 
difficulties  and  dangers  which  beset  the  first  emigrants 
who  attempted  to  cross  the  deserts  lying  between  Salt 
Lake  City  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  The  story 
of  the  sufferings  and  final  escape  of  that  party  which,  by 
taking  the  wrong  course,  was  lost  in  the  great  sink,  is  ex- 
tremely interesting  although  sad.  The  valley  received  its 
name  from  the  experiences  of  the  members  of  this  party. 


172  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

In  the  latter  part  of  1849  many  emigrants,  who  had 
reached  Salt  Lake^  City  too  late  in  the  season  to  take  the 
usual  route  through  northern  Nevada  and  over  the  Sierra 
Nevada  mountains,  decided  that  rather  than  remain  in  the 
town  all  winter,  they  would  follow  the  south  trail  across 
southern  Nevada  to  San  Bernardino  and  Los  Angeles. 

A  party  of  people  finally  collected  with  one  hundred 
and  seven  wagons  and  about  five  hundred  horses  and 
cattle.  The  course  led  in  a  southwesterly  direction  past 
Sevier  Lake  and  Mountain  Meadows  in  southwestern 
Utah.  In  the  latter  locality  the  party  divided,  the  larger 
number  leaving  the  old  trail  and  taking  a  more  westerly 
direction.  They  thought  in  this  way  to  shorten  the  dis- 
tance, and  hoped,  by  skirting  the  southern  end  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  to  gain  the  San  Joaquin  Valley 
in  California. 

Now  trouble  began.  No  one  had  ever  been  over  the 
new  route,  and  the  location  of  the  springs  and  the  passes 
through  which  the  wagons  could  be  taken  had  to  be  sought 
out  in  advance.  Soon  many  of  the  party  turned  back  to 
the  known  trail,  but  the  others  continued,  though  with  no 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  country  which  they  must 
cross. 

Day  after  day  and  week  after  week  the  slow  ox-teams 
crawled  across  the  broad  deserts  and  over  the  low  moun- 
tain ranges.  From  the  top  of  each  successive  mountain 
ridge  the  men  looked  with  longing  eyes  toward  the  west, 
hoping  to  get  a  sight  of  the  snowy  Sierras.  Finally  want 
of  water  and  food  began  to  weaken  the  cattle  and  the 
wagons  were  lightened  as  much  as  possible. 

As  the  party  approached  the  eastern  boundary  of  Cali- 
fornia  the   mountains  grew  higher  and  the  deserts   more 


DEATH   VALLEY  1 73 

arid.  In  the  clear  air  the  snow-covered  peaks  of  the 
Panamint  Range  began  to  be  visible,  although  one  hundred 
miles  away.  The  weary  emigrants  believed  that  these 
peaks  belonged  to  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  and  that  beyond 
them  lay  the  green  valleys  of  California.  How  great  was 
their  mistake !  The  Panamint  Range  looks  down  upon 
Death  Valley  with  a  bold  and  almost  impassable  front, 
while  still  other  broad  deserts  lie  between  this  range  and 
the  real  Sierras. 

Upon  reaching  the  head  of  the  Amargosa  River  the 
party  began  to  separate,  for  by  this  time  many  thought 
only  of  saving  their  lives  at  any  cost.  Some  followed 
Furnace  Creek  to  its  sink  in  Death  Valley  ;  others  went 
over  the  Funeral  range  and  came  down  upon  the  lower 
portion  of  the  Amargosa  River.  In  many  cases  the 
wagons  were  abandoned  and  the  oxen  were  killed  for 
food. 

When  they  came  into  the  sink  we  now  know  as  Death 
Valley,  the  members  of  the  different  parties  began  to  feel 
*hat  they  were  really  lost.  From  the  records  that  have 
come  down  to  us  we  can  see  that  they  had  not  the  slight- 
est idea  of  the  direction  which  they  should  take  or  of  their 
distance  from  the  settlements  in  California.  Fortunately 
it  was  the  winter  season  and  the  heat  did  not  trouble 
them ;  moreover,  the  rains  and  snows  furnished  some 
water. 

None  of  the  wagons  were  taken  beyond  the  camp  at  the 
western  edge  of  the  valley,  under  the  towering  peaks  of 
the  Panamint  Range.  This  place  is  now  known  as  Ben- 
nett's Wells.  Here  the  wagons  were  broken  up  and 
burned,  and  the  loads,  which  were  now  very  light,  were 
either  taken  by  the  men  themselves  or  placed  upon  the 


174  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

backs  of  the  few  remaining  oxen.  It  was  thought  that 
the  fair  fields  of  California  would  be  seen  from  the  top  of 
the  Panamint  Range ;  but  when  the  travellers  reached  the 
summit  other  desert  valleys  appeared  in  the  west,  and  be- 
yond these,  in  the  dim  distance,  another  snowy  range  was 
visible. 

The  emigrants  now  divided  into  parties.  One  party 
reached  Owens  Lake,  and  turning  south,  finally  passed 
over  the  Sierras  by  the  way  of  Walkers  Pass  and  went 
down  the  valley  of  the  Kern  River.  Another,  the  Bennett 
party,  including  some  women  and  children,  remained  at 
the  springs  in  Death  Valley,  while  two  of  the  men  started 
out  alone,  in  the  hope  of  reaching  the  settlements  and 
returning  with  food.  These  men  crossed  the  Panamint 
Range  and  struggled  on  for  days  in  a  southwesterly  direc- 
tion, over  desert  valleys  and  mountains.  They  were  fre- 
quently on  the  point  of  giving  up  in  despair  for  want  of 
food  and  water. 

At  last,  far  to  the  south,  the  snowy  crest  of  the  San 
Gabriel  Range  came  into  sight.  Continuing  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  through  the  Mohave  Desert,  the  men 
reached  a  low  pass  in  the  mountains  and  followed  a  stream 
until  they  came  upon  a  Mexican  ranch,  where  the  sight  of 
green  meadows,  upon  which  horses  and  cattle  were  feed- 
ing, delighted  their  weary  eyes. 

Several  animals  were  secured  and  loaded  with  food. 
Then  the  men  turned  back  into  the  desert.  They  at  last 
reached  the  desolate  valley  again,  after  an  absence  of 
about  a  month,  and  found  most  of  the  party  alive,  although 
nearly  driven  to  despair.  With  the  aid  of  a  mule  and  sev- 
eral oxen,  the  party  came  safely  to  the  fertile  valleys  near 
the  coast. 


DEATH    VALLEY 


175 


Another  party,  known  as  the  Jayhawkers,  struggled  on 
behind  the  two  men  who  went  for  relief,  and  the  most  of 
its  members  also  came  safely  out  of  the  desert,  though  not 
without  extreme  suffering.  In  all,  fourteen  people  of  this 
expedition  perished. 


>f~ 


Wfr  w 


-*.    *.     ■  •«  .♦>.. 


•fc 


Fig.  74.  —  Southern  End  of  Death  Valley 
Showing  the  white  deposits  of  soda 

If  you  ever  have  an  opportunity  to  travel  over  this 
region,  you  will  wonder  that  any  of  the  people  escaped. 
The  seemingly  endless  succession  of  deserts  and  mountains, 
the  lack  of  food,  and  the  scanty  supply  of  water,  often 
unfit  to  drink,  would  lead  one  to  think  that  strangers  to 
these  wilds  would  be  far  more  likely  to  perish  than  to  find 
their  way  out. 


THE   CLIFF    DWELLERS   AND   THEIR 
DESCENDANTS 

The  region  of  the  high  plateaus  of  the  southwestern 
United  States  presents  many  strange  and  interesting  as- 
pects. Equipped  with  pack  animals  for  the  trails,  and 
conducted  by  a  guide  who  knows  the  position  of  the 
springs,  one  might  wander  for  months  over  this  rugged 
and  semi-arid  region  without  becoming  weary  of  the 
wonderful  sights  which  Nature  has  prepared. 

In  travelling  over  the  plateau  one  has  to  consider  that 
often  for  long  distances  the  precipitous  walls  of  the  cailons 
cannot  be  scaled,  and  that  the  springs  are  few  and  inacces- 
sible. To  one  not  acquainted  with  the  plateau  it  appears 
incapable  of  supporting  human  life.  There  is  little  wild 
game  and  scarcely  any  water  to  irrigate  the  dry  soil. 

However,  if  the  country  is  examined  closely,  the  dis- 
covery will  be  made  that  it  was  once  inhabited,  though  by 
a  people  very  different  from  the  savage  Indians  who  wan- 
dered over  it  when  the  white  men  first  came.  These  early 
people  had  permanent  homes  and  were  much  more  civil- 
ized than  the  Indians.  They  lived  chiefly  by  agriculture, 
cultivating  little  patches  of  land  wherever  water  could 
be  obtained. 

Go  in  whatever  way  you  will  from  the  meeting  point 
of  the  four  states  and  territories,  Colorado,  Utah,  Arizona, 
and  New  Mexico,  and  you  will  find  the  ruins  of  houses 
and  forts.     Upon  the  tops  of  precipitous  cliffs,  in  the  caves 

176 


CLIFF  DWELLERS   AND  THEIR   DESCENDANTS      177 

with  which  the  canon  walls  abound,  by  the  streams  and 
springs,  there  are  crumbling  stone  buildings,  many  of  them 
of  great  extent,  and  once  capable  of  sheltering  hundreds 
of  people.  Scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
buried  in  the  soil  about  the  ruins  are  fragments  of  pottery, 
stone  implements,  corn-cobs,  and  in  protected  spots  the 
remains  of  corn  and  squash  stems. 

The  people  who  once  inhabited  these  ruins  have  been 
called  Cliff  Dwellers,  because  their  homes  are  so  frequently 
found  clinging  to  the  cliffs,  like  the  nests  of  birds,  in  the 
caverns  and  recesses  of  the  precipitous  canon  walls.  The 
Cliff  Dwellers  have  left  no  written  records,  but  from  a  study 
of  their  buildings  and  of  the  materials  found  in  them,  and 
from  the  traces  of  irrigating  ditches,  we  are  sure  that  they 
were  a  peaceful,  agricultural  people. 

The  oldest  ruins  are  probably  those  in  the  open  and  less 
protected  valleys.  It  is  evident  that  after  these  dwellings 
had  been  occupied  for  an  indefinite  time  the  more  fierce 
and  warlike  Indians  began  to  overrun  the  plateau  region 
and  make  attacks  upon  the  primitive  inhabitants.  These 
people,  peacefully  inclined  and  probably  not  strong  in  num- 
bers, could  find  no  protection  in  the  valleys  where  they  irri- 
gated little  patches  of  land  and  raised  corn  and  squashes  ; 
so,  retreating  to  the  more  inaccessible  canons,  they  became 
cliff  dwellers.  Seeking  out  the  caverns  so  abundant  in  these 
canons,  they  went  to  work  with  tireless  energy  to  build  for 
themselves  impregnable  homes  and  fortresses  to  which  they 
could  retreat  when  the  savage  Indians  appeared. 

The  canon  of  Beaver  Creek  in  central  Arizona  contains 
one  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  fortresses,  known  as 
Montezuma's  Castle.  Many  small  buildings  nestle  along 
the  sides  of  the  canon  upon  the  ledges  and  under  over- 


178  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

hanging  rocks,  but  Montezuma's  Castle  is  the  most  mag- 
nificent of  them  all,  and  must  have  given  protection  to  a 
number  of  families. 

Halfway  up  the  face  of  a  cliff  two  hundred  feet  in 
height,  there  is  a  large  cavern  with  an  upward  sloping 
floor  and  jagged  overhanging  top.  Here  with  infinite  toil 
the  Cliff  Dwellers  constructed  a  fortress,  the  front  of  which 
rose  forty  feet  from  the  foundation  and  contained  five 
stories.  This  front  was  not  made  straight,  but  concave, 
to  correspond  to  the  curve  of  the  cliff. 

What  an  effort  it  must  have  been  for  these  people,  who 
had  nothing  but  their  hands  to  work  with,  to  quarry  the 
stone.  To  carry  their  materials  from  the  bottom  of  the 
canon,  by  means  of  rude  ladders,  up  the  steep  and  rugged 
wall  to  the  foot  of  the  cavern,  and  then  to  lay  the  founda- 
tion securely  upon  the  sloping  floor,  must  have  been  a  still 
harder  task. 

The  stones  were  laid  in  mud,  and  in  most  cases  were 
also  plastered  with  it.  Here  and  there  little  holes  were  left 
to  let  in  light,  but  the  rooms,  with  their  low  ceilings,  would 
have  seemed  very  dismal  and  dark  to  us.  Beams  were  set 
in  the  walls  to  support  the  different  floors.  Smaller  sticks 
were  laid  upon  the  beams,  and  then  a  layer  of  earth  was 
placed  over  the  top. 

To  pass  through  the  openings  between  the  different 
rooms  the  inhabitants  had  to  crawl  upon  their  hands  and 
knees.  The  places  where  they  built  their  fires  are  indi- 
cated by  the  dark  stains  which  the  smoke  has  left  upon 
the  walls.  Broken  pottery  and  corn-cobs  are  scattered 
profusely  about  the  building.  How  safe  these  ancient 
people  must  have  felt  in  this  retreat,  where  they  were 
protected,  both  from  the  storms  and  from  their  enemies! 


< 

< 


u 


- 


180  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

Near  some  of  the  ruined  dwellings  in  this  region  there 
are  remains  of  buildings  which  are  supposed  to  have  been 
watch-towers.  We  can  picture  to  ourselves  the  sentinels' 
alarm  given  to  the  workers  in  the  fields  at  the  approach  of 
the  savage  Apaches,  and  the  hasty  flight  of  the  Cliff 
Dwellers  to  the  castle  far  up  the  canon  wall,  —  the  pull- 
ing up  of  the  ladders  and  the  retreat  to  the  upper  rooms 
from  which  they  could  look  down  in  perfect  safety.  They 
must  have  kept  water  and  food  stored  in  the  cave  houses. 
As  long  as  these  supplies  held  out  no  injury  need  be  feared 
from  the  attacking  party. 

But  apparently  there  came  a  time  when  the  Cliff  Dwell- 
ers either  abandoned  their  gardens  and  fortresses  or  were 
killed.  It  is  possible  that  the  climate  of  the  plateau  region 
became  more  arid  and  that  many  of  the  springs  dried  up, 
for  there  is  no  water  now  within  long  distances  of  some  of 
the  ruins.  It  is,  perhaps,  more  probable  that  the  attacks 
of  the  savages  became  so  frequent  that  the  Cliff  Dwellers 
were  driven  from  their  little  farms  and  were  no  longer 
able  to  procure  food. 

Those  who  were  not  killed  by  enemies  or  by  starvation 
retreated  southward  and  gathered  in  a  few  large  villages, 
or  pueblos,  where  they  were  still  resisting  the  attacks  of 
their  enemies  at  the  time  of  the  coming  of  the  early  Spanish 
explorers. 

A  careful  study  of  the  early  inhabitants  of  America 
reveals  the  fact  that  the  Pueblo  Indians  are  the  descend- 
ants of  the  race  of  Cliff  Dwellers.  Their  houses,  their 
pottery,  and  their  religious  ceremonies  are,  so  far  as  can 
be  determined,  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Cliff  Dwellers. 
If  you  travel  through  northwestern  New  Mexico  and 
northeastern  Arizona,  you  will  find    the  villages  situated 


ES 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


upon  commanding  rocks  which  are  often  surrounded  by 
almost  inaccessible  cliffs.  To  these  elevated  villages  all 
the  food  and  water  has  to  be  carried  from  the  valleys 
below.  The  houses  are  solidly  built  of  stone,  and  rise, 
terrace-fashion,  several  stories  in  height,  each  succeeding 
story  standing  a  little  back  of  the  one  below.  These 
houses  can  be  entered  only  by  a  ladder  from  the  outside. 
In  time  of  danger  the  ladders  are  drawn  up  so  that  the 


Fig.  77.  —  Grinding  Grain,  Laguna,  New  Mexico 


walls  cannot  be  easily  scaled.  There  are  a  number  of 
groups  of  the  Pueblo  Indians,  but  the  Zuni  and  Moki 
are  perhaps  as  interesting  as  any  of  them. 

Wonderful  indeed  are  some  of  the  pueblo  villages  which 
were  still  occupied  at  the  time  of  the  coming  of  the  Span- 
ish, more  than  three  centuries  and  a  half  ago.  As  in  the 
pueblos  now  occupied,  there  were  no  separate  family 
houses.  The  people  of  an  entire  pueblo  lived  in  one 
great  building  of  many  rooms.  Some  of  the  pueblos 
were  semi-circular,  with  a  vertical  wall  upon  the  outside, 


CLIFF  DWELLERS   AND  THEIR   DESCENDANTS      183 

while  upon  the  inside  the  successive  stories  formed  a 
series  of  huge  steps  similar  to  the  tiers  of  seats  in  an 
ancient  amphitheatre. 


Fig.  78.  —  The  Enchanted  Mesa 

The  summit  was  once  the  site  of  an  Indian  pueblo 


In  the  pueblo  of  Pecos  were  the  largest  buildings  of  this 
kind  ever  discovered.  One  had  three  hundred  and  seven- 
teen rooms,  and  another  five  hundred  and  eighty-five.  Taos 
is  another  of  the  large  pueblos,  and  is  especially  interest- 
ing because  it  is  still  inhabited.  This  great  building  has 
from  three  to  six  stories  with  several  hundred  rooms.  In 
the  foreground  of  the  photograph  (Fig.  ~6)  appears  one 
of  the  ovens  in  which  the  baking  is  done.  In  some  of 
these  pueblos  the  women  still  grind  their  corn  by  hand  in 


r84 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


stone  viatatcs,  just  as  their  ancestors  did  for  many  hundreds 
and  perhaps  thousands  of  years. 

In  northwestern  New  Mexico  there  is  a  remarkable  flat- 
topped  rock  known  as  the  Enchanted  Mesa,  which  rises 
with  precipitous  walls   to  a  height  of   four  hundred  feet 

above  the  valley  in  which 
it  stands.  It  was  long  be- 
lieved that  human  beings 
had  never  been  upon  this 
rock,  although  there  were 
traditions  to  the  effect  that 
a  village  once  existed  upon 
its  summit.  According  to 
the  tradition,  the  breaking 
away  of  a  great  mass  of 
rock  left  the  summit  inac- 
cessible ever  afterward. 
The  cliffs  were  scaled  re- 
cently by  the  aid  of  ropes, 
and  evidences  were  found, 
in  the  shape  of  pottery 
fragments,  to  show  that  the  Indians  had  once  inhabited 
the  mesa.  Two  or  three  miles  away,  across  the  valley, 
is  the  large  village  of  Acoma,  where  a  great  deal  of  pot- 
tery is  made  for  sale. 

The  pottery  of  the  Pueblo  Indians  is  very  attractive, 
and  their  religious  festivals  and  peculiar  dances  draw  many 
visitors.  These  Indians  no  longer  fear  attacks  from  the 
savage  Apache  or  Navajo,  but  they  have  become  so  used 
to  their  rock  fortresses  that  it  is  not  likely  they  will  soon 
leave  them.  The  Navajos  now  live  in  peace  and  raise 
large  herds  of  sheep  and  goats;   while   the  more  savage 


Fig.  79.  —  Pottery  of  the  Acoma 
Indians,  New  Mexico 


CLIFF   DWELLERS  AND  THEIR  DESCENDANTS      185 

Apaches  have  been  gathered  upon  reservations,  never 
more  to  go  upon  the  war-path.  Most  of  the  Apaches 
still  live  in  their  rude  brush  habitations. 

While  the  Pueblo  Indians  make  attractive  pottery,  the 
Navajos  are  noted  for  their  blankets.  The  wool,  which 
is  taken  from  their  herds,  is  dyed  different  colors,  and 


•'  i>. 


Fig.  80.  —  Navajo  Woman"  weaving  a  Blankei 

woven  upon  their  simple   looms   into   the   most   beautiful 
and  costly  blankets. 

We  usually  think  of  the  native  inhabitants  of  America 
as  leading  a  wild  and  rude  life,  moving  from  place  to 
place  in  search  of  food,  and  constantly  engaged  in  warfare 
with  one  another.  The  Pueblo  Indians  alone  are  different. 
Possibly  if  the  white  man  had  never  come  to  America  these 


1 86  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

Indians  might  in  time  have  become  highly  civilized.  But 
it  is  more  than  likely  that  in  their  struggle  with  Nature  in 
this  wild  and  rugged  country,  where  they  were  constantly 
subjected  to  attacks  from  their  more  savage  neighbors,  they 
would  have  sunk  lower  instead  of  rising,  and  would  finally 
have  disappeared. 

The  Apaches  were  dreaded  alike  by  the  agricultural 
Indians  and  the  early  Spanish.  Issuing  from  their  moun- 
tain fastnesses  the  Apaches  would  raid  the  unprotected 
villages  and  missions,  and  then  retreat  as  quickly  as  they 
came.  For  many  years  after  the  American  occupation 
prospectors  had  to  be  constantly  on  their  guard,  and  many 
are  the  tragedies  that  have  marked  this  remote  corner  of 
our  country. 


THE    LIFE    OF   THE    DESERT 

During  the  blinding  glare  of  summer  the  deserts  of 
southwestern  Arizona  and  the  adjoining  portions  of  Cali- 
fornia are  forbidding  in  the  extreme.  Day  after  day  the 
pitiless  sun  pours  its  heat  upon  the  vast  stretches  of 
barren  mountain  and  plain,  until  the  rocks  are  baked 
brown  and  it  seems  as  if  every  particle  of  life  must  have 
left  the  seared  and  motionless  plants. 

Month  after  month  passes  without  rain.  Now  and  then 
light  clouds  float  into  sight,  and  occasionally  rain  can  be 
seen  falling  from  them,  but  they  are  so  high  that  the  drops 
all  disappear  in  the  dry  and  thirsty  air  long  before  they  can 
reach  the  ground.  Cloud-bursts  may  take  place  about  the 
peaks  of  some  of  the  higher  mountains,  but  they  have 
very  little  effect  upon  the  life  out  on  the  plains. 

Animals  and  plants  brought  to  this  region  from  a 
moister  climate  must  drink  continually  to  make  up  for  the 
rapid  evaporation  of  moisture  from  their  bodies ;  a  day 
without  water  may  result  in  death.  And  yet  the  living 
things  that  have  homes  in  the  desert  can  resist  the  dry 
air  for  many  months  without  a  renewal  of  their  moisture. 
There  are  areas  where  the  average  rainfall  is  less  than 
three  inches,  and  sometimes  two  years  may  pass  without 
a  drop  of  rain.  It  will  certainly  be  worth  our  while  to 
find  out  something  about  these  desert  plants  and  the  way 
in  which  Nature  enables  them  to  get  along  with  so  little 
water. 

187 


1 88  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

Go  where  we  will,  from  the  moist  heat  of  the  tropics  or 
the  dry  heat  of  the  deserts  to  the  icy  north,  we  find  that 
everywhere  the  plants  and  animals  are  suited  to  the  climate 
of  the  particular  place  in  which  they  live.  Therefore  we 
might  conclude  that  they  thrive  better  in  those  places  than 
they  would  anywhere  else,  but  that  is  not  always  true. 

A  struggle  is  going  on  continually  among  plants  for  a 
footing  in  the  soil  and  for  a  share  of  the  sunshine.  The 
weaker  plants  are  generally  killed,  while  those  hardy 
enough  to  survive  have  to  adapt  themselves  to  new  condi- 
tions of  life,  becoming  stunted  and  deformed  upon  barren 
slopes ;  but  they  have  plenty  of  room  there  because  fewer 
plants  are  striving  for  the  same  place. 

It  is  not  likely  that  the  deserts  of  the  southwest  have 
always  been  as  dry  as  they  are  now.  As  the  amount  of 
rainfall  slowly  lessened  through  thousands  of  years,  the 
animals  could  migrate  when  it  became  too  dry ;  but  the 
plants,  fixed  in  one  place,  had  either  to  give  up  and  die,  or 
change  their  characters  and  habits  to  suit  the  demands 
of  the  changing  climate.  The  fact  that  these  extremely 
dry  deserts  are  filled  with  plant  life  to-day  is  without  doubt 
due  to  this  ability  to  change. 

In  a  moist,  warm  climate  plants  are  luxuriant ;  they  take 
up  a  large  amount  of  water  through  their  roots  and  evapo- 
rate it  through  the  leaves.  If  placed  in  a  desert,  such 
plants  would  immediately  wither  and  die.  To  avoid  too 
rapid  evaporation  the  bodies  of  the  desert  plants  have 
become  smaller,  and  their  leaves  have  either  shrunk 
greatly  or  wholly  disappeared.  Strong-smelling,  resinous 
juices  exude  from  the  remaining  leaves  and  stems,  and  form 
a  surface  varnish  through  which  water  passes  with  difficulty. 

Some  forms  of  plant  life,  such  as  the  prickly-pear,  are 


THE   LIFE   OF   THE   DESERT  189 

provided  with  fleshy  stems  which  hold  a  supply  of  moisture 
to  be  drawn  upon  during  the  long  dry  season.  Men  and 
animals  are  sometimes  saved  from  death  by  chewing  the 
pulp  of  the  prickly-pear  or  other  cactuses.  After  a  period 
of  exceptional  drought,  the  stems  of  the  prickly-pear  lose 
their  bright  green  color  and  become  shrunken. 


Fig.  81. —  Prickly-pear,  Ball  Cactus,  and  Spanish  Bayonet 

The  development  of  the  underground  part  of  the  plant 
is  frequently  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  part  above  the 
surface.  The  manzanita,  which  grows  in  the  semi-arid 
climate  of  southern  California,  is  a  low  shrub  with  branches 
that  are  rarely  large  enough  for  fuel.  The  roots,  how- 
ever, are  large  and  massive,  and  are  extensively  used  for 
firewood. 

The  desert  plants  are  armed,  not  only  against  the 
dry  air,  but  against  the  wandering  animals  which  would 
bite  them  and  suck  their  juices.  The  smell  of  the  sage- 
brush is  such  that  very  few  animals  will  touch  it.     Other 


190 


THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 


plants  are  protected  by  thorns.  In  fact,  the  drier  the 
region,  the  more  thorny  are  its  plants.  A  little  shrub 
^^  ^I^Y  called      the      crucifixion 

thorn  has  no  leaves  at 
all,  nothing  but  long, 
sharp  spines.  Besides 
the  straight  thorns  there 
are  curved  and  also 
barbed  ones,  for  every 
conceivable  form  is  rep- 
resented among  the 
plants  of  these  dry  lands. 
As  the  desert  plants 
are  armed  against  the 
animals,  so  the  animals 
are  armed  against  each 
other.  Many  of  the  in- 
sects and  reptiles  are 
extremely  poisonous ;  the 
greater  the  heat  of  their 
habitat,  the  more  dangerous  are  their  bites.  The  horned 
toad,  while  not  poisonous,  is  protected  by  having  horny 
spines  upon  its  head  and  back.  The  little  rattlesnake 
known  as  the  "side-winder"  is  perhaps  the  most  danger- 
ous of  all,  although  the  tarantula,  centipede,  and  scorpion 
are  formidable  foes.  The  Gila  monster,  long  believed  to 
be  so  dangerous,  is  now  considered  non-poisonous  under 
ordinary  conditions. 

The  desert  tortoise  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of 
all  the  animals  of  the  desert.  It  is  rare,  and  little  is 
known  of  its  habits  except  that  it  lives  in  the  most  arid 
valleys  of  southeastern  California,  far  removed  from  any 


Fig.  82.  —  Crucifixion  Thorn 


THE    LIFE   OF   THE   DESERT 


191 


water.  This  tortoise  has  a  diameter  across  its  shell  of  at 
least  eighteen  inches.  Its  flesh  is  much  prized  by  the 
Indians  and  prospectors.  A  specimen  which  had  been 
without  water  for  an  indefinite  period  was  dissected,  and 
the  discovery  was  made  that  upon  each  side  there  was  a 
membranous  sac,  containing   clear  water,   perhaps  a  pint 


Fig.  8 


The  Gila  Monster 


in  all.  The  desert  tortoise,  then,  carries  his  store  of 
water  with  him,  and  is  thus  enabled  to  go  many  months 
without  a  new  supply. 

A  trip  across  the  deserts  of  the  lower  Colorado  in  spring, 
before  the  bracing  air  of  winter  has  entirely  gone,  is  one 
never  to  be  forgotten.  The  poisonous  insects  and  reptiles 
are  not  at  this  time  warmed  up  to  full  activity,  while  many 
peculiar  plants  are  just  coming  into  bloom. 

Let  us  study  some  of  the  strange  forms  growing  thickly 
over  the  rocky  slopes  and  sandy  plains.  There  are  miles 
of  forest,  but  not  such  a  forest  as  we  are  accustomed  to  see. 
Tall,  fluted  columns  of  the  giant  cactus  (saguaro),  with 
rows  of  sharp  spines,  reach  upward  to  a  height  of  from 


192 


THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 


twenty  to  fifty  feet.  At  one  or  more  nodes,  bud-like 
branches  spring  from  the  main  trunk  and,  curving  upward, 
form  columns  about  the  parent  stem. 

The  giant  cactus  bears  near  the  top  a  purple  flower  and 
a  large,  edible  fruit.  This  fruit,  which  has  a  red  pulp,  is 
a  favorite  food  with  the  Indians,  and  also  with  many 
insects  and  birds.     It  is  gathered  by  means  of  long  forked 


Fig.  84.  —  The  Palo  Verde  Tree  and  Saguaro 


sticks,  for  if  it  should  drop  to  the  ground  it  would  be 
broken.  The  pulp  of  the  stalk  yields  a  little  juice  or  sap 
which  is  used  by  the  Indians  when  hard  pressed  for  water. 
Scattered  among  the  huge  club-shaped  columns  of  the 
saguaro  is  the  cholla,  the  next  largest  of  the  cactuses. 
This  species,  which  is  tree-like  in  its  branching  and  in  rare 
cases  grows  to  a  height  of  twelve  feet,  bears  bright  red 


< 
z 
z 
« 

3 


- 


1   - 


M     X 


194 


THE    WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 


or  yellow  flowers.  One  must  approach  with  care,  for  its 
jointed  stems  are  so  easily  broken  that  at  the  slightest 
touch  of  the  hand  or  clothing,  pieces  break  off  and  adhere 
firmly  by  means  of  their  sharp  curved  and  barbed  spines. 
Another  species  of  the  cholla  is  small,  reaching  but  a  foot 
or  two  above  the  ground,  but  this  and  other  low  forms  so 
cover  the  ground  in  places  that  one  has  to  be  constantly  on 
guard  to  keep  from  running  the  spines  into  his  feet. 

These  are  not  all  the  plants  of  this  wonderful  forest. 
The  ocatilla  is  a  cactus-like  form  having  a  group  of  long 

slender  stems  bunched  together 
at  the  root.  In  the  spring  each 
is  tipped  with  a  spike  of  red 
flowers,  and  as  the  snake-like 
stalks  wave  in  the  breeze  they 
present  an  appearance  scarcely 
less  attractive  than  the  saguaro. 
Scattered  among  the  vegeta- 
tion just  mentioned  is  the  palo 
verde  (green  tree),  so  named 
from  the  yellowish  green  of  its 
bark.  It  is  remarkable  for  the 
small  size  of  the  leaves,  which 
afford  scarcely  any  shade  for 
the  traveller  upon  a  hot  summer  day.     (Fig.  84.) 

Along  the  dry  water  courses  we  find  the  mesquite,  a  tree 
which  does  not  grow  upon  the  gravelly  plains  and  rocky 
slopes,  for  it  needs  more  moisture  than  most  of  the  desert 
vegetation.  In  the  spring  it  puts  out  delicate  green  leaves 
which  form  a  pleasing  contrast  with  the  other  plants. 

Riding  through  one  of  these  forests  in  the  deepening 
twilight,  one  is  impressed  with  a  feeling  of  awe  and  mys- 


FlG.  86.  —  Ocatii.i.a 


THE    LIFE   OF   THE    DESERT 


195 


tery  by  the  strange,  weird  shapes  outlined  against  the  sky. 
In  the  cooler  air  of  evening  the  animals  come  from  their 
retreats.  The  insects  and  the  snakes  are  then  abroad,  and 
if  one  is  on  foot  the  sudden  buzz  of  a  rattlesnake  is  not 
a  pleasant  sound  to  hear. 


Fig.  87.  —  Mesquite  Tree,  Santa  Cruz  Valley,  Southern  Arizona 

The  prickly-pear  prefers  slopes  not  quite  so  dry  and 
hot  as  those  of  the  forest  just  described.  Its  broad,  spade- 
like, jointed  stems  are  very  interesting.  The  red  fruit 
clustered  upon  their  extremities  is  not  disagreeable  to  the 
taste,  but  is  covered  with  a  soft,  prickly  down. 

Associated  with  the  prickly-pear  is  a  species  of  agave, 
but  this  does  not  grow  so  large  in  Arizona  as  it  does 
farther  south  in  Mexico.  The  plant  is  familiar  to  us  as 
the  common  century  plant  of  our  gardens.  The  long 
fleshy  leaves  with  spines  at  the  ends  are  clustered  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  from  their  centre,  at  blooming 


196 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


time,  rises  a  tall  flower  stalk.  The  agave  requires  many 
years  to  mature.  When  the  flower  stalk  has  once  started 
it  grows  rapidly,  but  after  blossoming  the  plant  dies. 

The  mezcal,  or  pulque,  the  national  drink  of  the  Mexi- 
cans, is  made  from  the  sap  of  the  agave.  The  fibre  of 
the  agave,  known  as  sisal  hemp,  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  rope,  twine,  mats,  brushes,  etc.  Other  parts  of  the 
plant  have  various  uses. 


Fig.  88.  —  The  Agave 


Fig.  89.  —  Spanish  Bayonet 
in  Bloom 


There  are  many  kinds  of  yucca  in  the  more  elevated 
portions  of  the  desert.  They  range  in  size  from  those 
only  two  or  three  feet  high,  of  which  the  Spanish  bayonet 
is  a  type,  to  the  giant  yucca  of  the  Mohave  Desert,  which 
attains  the  proportions  of  a  tree  and  forms  thick  forests 
over  an  area  of  -many  miles.  The  Spanish  bayonet,  with 
its  long  stalk  of  white,  waxy  blossoms,  presents  a  very 
beautiful  appearance,  as  do  also  the  young  specimens  of 
the  tree  yucca. 


THE    LIFE   OF   THE    DESERT 


197 


At  rare  intervals,  once  perhaps  in  many  years,  there  is 
an  unusual  amount  of  rainfall  in  the  spring,  and  in  a  few 
weeks  the  desert  becomes  transformed  as  if  by  magic. 
Seeds  germinate,  the  presence  of  which  one  would  never 
have  suspected  in  the  drier 
weather.  In  an  incredibly 
short  time  the  long  gravelly  or 
sandy  slopes  about  the  bases  of 
the  mountains  are  covered  with 
a  veritable  carpet  of  green,  yel- 
low, and  red.  The  sand  verbena, 
the  evening  primrose,  baby  blue- 
eyes,  and  different  kinds  of  lilies 
grow  so  thickly  in  places  that 
every  footstep  crushes  them. 

But  in  a  few  short  days  the 
beauty  has  disappeared.  The 
seeds  mature  speedily  and  drop 
into  the  sand.  A  hot  wind 
withers  the  stems  and  leaves  and  blows  them  away ;  drift- 
ing sands  take  the  place  of  the  rich  carpet.  How  readily 
these  plants  have  adapted  themselves  to  the  brief  period 
in  which  life  is  possible ! 

Thus  it  is  that  this  vast  region  about  the  lower  Colorado, 
although  so  dry  and  hot,  and  at  first  sight  apparently  so 
unfitted  for  sustaining  life,  nevertheless  supports  its  share. 
Many  of  the  plant  forms  have  assumed  strange  and  mon- 
strous shapes  in  their  efforts  to  withstand  the  hard  condi- 
tions in  the  struggle  for  existence,  while  others  simply  lie 
in  waiting,  sleeping  during  the  long  dry  year,  but  ready  to 
spring  into  life  when  the  favorable  showers  come,  as  they 
sometimes  do. 


Fig. 


90.  —  Young  Yuccas 

Bl  OOM 


IN 


THE   PONY    EXPRESS 

Although  it  is  only  a  little  more  than  fifty  years  since 
the  discovery  of  gold  was  made  and  the  rapid  settlement 
of  the  West  began,  what  a  change  has  come  over  this 
great  region !  It  was  at  first  supposed  to  be  impossible 
to  connect  the  growing  settlements  upon  the  Pacific  with 
the  East  by  anything  more  than  a  wagon  road,  and  those 
who  advocated  the  building  of  a  railroad  were  ridiculed. 
Now  the  journey  across  the  continent  is  made  upon  smooth 
steel  tracks  in  comfortable  coaches,  for  the  skill  of  the 
engineer  has  overcome  the  difficulties  of  the  desert,  the 
mountain  wall,  and  the  canon. 

The  pioneers  who  pushed  westward  from  the  Mississippi 
River  with  their  slow  ox-teams  took  all  summer  to  reach 
the  fertile  valleys  of  California  and  Oregon,  and  considered 
themselves  fortunate  if  they  arrived  at  their  destination 
before  the  coming  of  the  winter  storms. 

The  first  overland  stage  line  was  established  by  way  of 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  terminating  at  Los  Angeles. 
Twenty-two  days  were  required  for  this  part  of  the  tire- 
some and  dangerous  trip.  The  route  was  longer  and  more 
desert-like  than  that  farther  north  across  Nevada,  but  the 
winter  storms  were  avoided. 

The  stage-coach  proved  too  slow  for  the  needs  of  the 
growing  settlements  upon  the  Pacific  slope.  A  telegraph 
line  was  planned,  but  it  could  not  be  completed  for  some 
time,  and  even  then  it  was  probable  that  the  Indians  would 
destroy  the  poles  and  wires. 

198 


THE   PONY    EXPRESS  199 

Then  came  the  idea  of  a  relay  of  fast  messengers  upon 
horseback,  and  the  pony  express  was  organized.  It  is 
difficult  to  believe  that  by  this  means  the  journey  of  two 
thousand  miles  between  St.  Joseph,  a  point  upon  the 
Missouri  a  little  above  Kansas  City,  and  Sacramento, 
California,  was  once  made  in  about  eight  days.  This  is 
only  a  little  more  than  twice  the  time  required  by  the 
fast  trains  at  present. 

For  two  years  the  trip  was  regularly  made  in  about  nine 
days,  averaging  two  hundred  and  twenty  miles  a  day.  It 
can  be  readily  understood  that  this  wonderful  feat  required 
many  relays  of  men  and  horses  scattered  along  the  route. 
The  express  rider  had  no  well-graded  roads  to  follow,  but 
only  the  rough  trail  of  the  emigrants.  This  led  across 
broad  deserts  and  over  rugged  mountains,  and  throughout 
most  of  the  journey  exposed  the  rider  to  the  attacks  of 
Indians. 

Let  us  take  a  map  and  trace  the  route  of  the  express. 
It  followed  closely  the  main  overland  trail  which  the  gold- 
seekers  had  opened.  Now  towns  and  cities  are  scattered 
along  the  old  trail,  and  the  railroad  crosses  and  recrosses 
it.  But  let  us  try  to  picture  the  country  as  it  appeared 
in  its  wild  state. 

Mountains,  valleys  and  plains  made  up  the  landscape. 
Vast  herds  of  buffalo  darkened  the  Great  Plains  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  while  farther  west  were  numerous 
bands  of  antelope.  The  streams  were  filled  with  beaver 
and  other  fur-bearing  animals.  Here  and  there  along  the 
rivers  were  Indian  villages  with  their  curiously  shaped 
tepees.  Even  the  deserts  of  Nevada  were  not  uninhab- 
ited, for  the  Indians  lived  there  also,  gathered  in  little 
family  groups  about  the  desolate  springs. 


200  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

When  we  speak  of  the  overland  trail  we  do  not  mean  a. 
narrow  path  for  animals,  but  the  wagon  road,  rude  though 
it  was,  which  the  early  emigrants  had  made.  They  were 
determined  to  cross  the  continent,  no  matter  what  the 
difficulties  and  dangers.  Wagons  could  be  drawn  by  the 
oxen  over  the  plains  and  deserts  with  little  difficulty, 
although  there  were  some  dangerous  rivers  to  be  crossed. 
Mountains  and  canons  offered  the  most  serious  obstruc- 
tions. In  many  places  the  wagons  had  to  be  let  down 
over  precipices  with  ropes,  or  be  taken  apart  and  carried 
piece  by  piece  around  the  obstructions. 

It  was  not  the  mountains  alone  which  made  the  trip 
" across  the  plains"  one  long  to  be  remembered.  It  was 
often  difficult  to  obtain  water  and  fodder  for  the  animals, 
and  at  many  points  savage  Indians,  bent  upon  plunder, 
were  in  hiding,  waiting  for  a  chance  to  stampede  the 
cattle  or  kill  the  emigrants.  The  way  was  marked  by 
abandoned  wagons,  household  goods,  bones  of  cattle,  and 
the  graves  of  human  beings. 

The  trail  led  from  the  Missouri  across  the  state  of  Kan- 
sas to  the  Platte  River,  then  followed  this  long  stream 
to  its  head  at  South  Pass  on  the  continental  divide. 
From  the  South  Pass  the  trail  led  southwest  past  Fort 
Bridger,  in  southwestern  Wyoming,  through  Echo  Canon 
and  over  Emigrant  pass  of  the  Wasatch  Range  down  to 
Salt  Lake  City,  which  had  been  founded  but  a  short  time 
before  the  discovery  of  gold.  West  of  Salt  Lake  City 
the  trail  skirted  the  northern  shore  of  the  Great  Salt 
Lake,  and  after  passing  a  low  mountain  divide  in  what  is 
now  northwestern  Utah,  reached  the  head  waters  of  the 
Humboldt  River.  Thence  the  path  ran  along  by  this  river 
down  to  the  place  where  it  disappeared  in  a  vast  sandy 


THE   PONY   EXPRESS 


201 


desert  known  as  the  sink  of  the  Carson.  The  Carson 
River,  after  the  dreary  desert  was  passed,  led  the  emigrants 
still  westward  toward  a  wall  of  mighty  mountains  known 
as  the  Sierra  Nevada.  Here  Nature  seemed  to  have  done 
her  utmost  to  shut  off  California,  with  its  fertile  valleys 
and  rich  gold-fields,  from  the  longing  eyes  of  the  emigrants. 


Pig.  91.  —  Chimney  Rock 
On  the  old  overland  trail  near  the  Platte  River,  western  Nebraska 


There  are,  however,  several  low  places  in  the  range,  and 
through  one  of  these  openings,  at  the  head  of  the  Carson 
River,  the  travellers  gained  the  western  slope  of  the  moun- 
tains. Then  in  good  time  they  reached  the  mining  town 
of  Placerville,  and  at  length  Sacramento,  the  capital  of 
California. 

In  order  that  the  pony  express  might  make  the  time 
required  over  the  two  thousand  miles,  five  hundred  horses 


202  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

and  several  hundred  men  were  needed.  The  stations  were 
placed  about  ten  miles  apart  and  were  strongly  built  so 
that  they  might  withstand  the  attacks  of  the  Indians. 
These  stations,  nearly  two  hundred  in  number,  all  had  to 
be  supplied  by  means  of  freight  teams,  which  often  hauled 
hay,  grain,  and  food  for  the  messengers  for  hundreds  of 
miles. 

The  horses  selected  for  the  messengers  to  ride  were 
the  small,  sure-footed  ponies  called  mustangs.  Through 
a  stretch  of  ten  miles  the  pony  was  pushed  to  its  utmost 
speed,  then  it  was  carefully  groomed,  fed,  and  rested  until 
the  time  came  to  make  the  return  trip. 

In  selecting  the  riders  three  things  were  of  great  impor- 
tance :  they  must  be  light  in  weight,  must  be  possessed  of 
great  powers  of  endurance,  and  also  must  be  brave  and 
resolute.  At  each  station,  as  the  time  approached  for  the 
express  to  arrive,  the  relay  horse  was  saddled  and  in  wait- 
ing. As  the  rider  dashed  in  he  jumped  from  his  horse, 
and  with  but  a  moment's  rest,  threw  the  saddle-bags  con- 
taining the  letters  upon  the  fresh  horse  and  was  off  again, 
riding  like  the  wind.  Upon  smooth  stretches  the  horses 
often  made  twenty  miles  an  hour,  but  it  was  quite  impos- 
sible to  maintain  this  speed  over  the  rocky  and  rugged 
portions  of  the  route.  Storms  and  Indian  ambuscades 
often  delayed  the  riders.  Sometimes  the  messenger  kept 
up  a  running  fight  with  the  Indians  for  miles. 

The  riders  were  frequently  killed,  but  the  mail-bags 
were  rarely  lost.  If  a  rider  did  not  come  in  on  time,  it 
was  known  that  something  serious  had  happened,  and 
search  was  immediately  made.  The  riders  were  not 
allowed  to  stop  for  any  purpose  whatsoever  ;  neither  storms 
of  the  greatest  severity  nor  even  the  presence  of  hostile 


THE   PONY   EXPRESS  203 

Indians  near  the  trail  kept  them  from  their  duty.  One 
of  the  few  riders  who  are  still  living  says  that  he  was 
never  afraid  except  on  dark,  cloudy  nights.  At  such 
times  he  made  no  attempt  to  guide  his  horse,  but  trusting 
to  the  intelligence  of  the  well-trained  animal,  gave  it  rein, 
and  at  the  same  time  spurred  it  to  its  utmost  speed.     Think 


Fig.  92.  —  Palisades  of  the  Humboldt  River,  Nevada 

Near  the  overland  trail 

of  riding  at  such  speed  into  the  dark  night,  not  knowing 
what  is  ahead  of  you  !  The  rider's  only  safety  lay  in  the 
carefulness  and  sagacity  of  the  horse.  Such  a  ride  called 
for  more  courage  than  did  a  conflict  with  Indians ! 

The   pony  express   carried  no   passengers.       It  carried 
no  freight,   not   even   the   usual  express    package.       The 


204  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

messenger  was  intrusted  with  nothing  but  two  bundles  of 
letters  carefully  stowed  away  in  a  pair  of  saddle-bags. 

The  letters  were  not  like  our  ordinary  letters,  for  the 
paper  used  was  the  thinnest  and  lightest  possible.  Hun- 
dreds of  the  letters  weighed  only  a  few  pounds.  It  was 
very  important  that  there  should  be  no  great  weight,  for 
if  the  horses  were  heavily  loaded,  they  could  not  make  the 
required  time.  Only  those  whose  business  was  of  great 
importance  could  afford  to  send  letters  by  this  express,  for 
the  charge  was  five  dollars  upon  each  letter. 

In  spite  of  the  high  charge  the  pony  express  is  said 
never  to  have  been  profitable,  for  the  expenses  were  very 
heavy.  It  was  discontinued  in  i860,  as  by  that  time  a 
telegraph  line  had  been  constructed  across  the  continent. 


HOW  CLIMATE  AND  PHYSICAL  FEATURES 
INFLUENCED  THE  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE 
WEST 

The  story  of  the  exploration  and  settlement  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  of  the  great  region  lying  between  the 
Pacific  slope  and  the  Mississippi  Valley,  offers  a  most 
interesting  opportunity  to  study  the  control  which  phys- 
ical features  of  the  earth  exert  upon  the  trend  of  men's 
activities.  The  position  of  the  mountains,  the  courses 
of  the  rivers,  and  the  character  of  the  sea-coast  have  all 
helped  to  shape  the  history  of  the  West.  The  presence 
of  gold  in  the  rocks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  was 
the  chief  incentive  which  led  to  the  breaking  down  of  the 
barriers  placed  by  Nature  between  the  Pacific  and  the 
Mississippi  basin. 

When  an  unknown  land  is  accessible  by  water,  the  shore 
line  offers  the  easiest  means  for  the  first  explorations  and 
settlements.  So  it  came  about  that  nearly  all  the  eastern 
coast  of  North  America  was  known  before  men  ventured 
far  into  the  interior.  Then  the  large  rivers,  like  the  St. 
Lawrence,  the  Hudson,  and  the  Mississippi,  seemed  to  offer 
inviting  routes  into  the  recesses  of  the  continent,  but 
exploration  through  the  pathless  woods  and  rough  moun- 
tains was  slow. 

It  was  soon  discovered  that  the  Hudson  was  a  short 
river  and  did  not  lead  across  the  continent  as  was  at 
first    hoped.      Because    of    the    absence    of    other    large 

205 


206  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

rivers  upon  that  portion  of  the  coast  which  the  English 
occupied,  their  settlements  did  not  spread  westward  as 
rapidly  as  they  otherwise  would  have  done.  The  country 
was  covered  with  dense  forests,  and  savage  Indians  dis- 
puted the  right  to  occupy  it.  In  time,  however,  passes 
were  found  leading  over  the  Appalachian  Mountains  to 
the  Ohio  River  and  through  the  Mohawk  Valley  to  the 
region  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

The  advantages  for  travel  offered  by  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  and  the  chain  of  lakes  above  it  were  utilized  at  an 
early  day.  The  route  of  the  French  missionary  explorers 
and  fur  traders  was  from  Montreal  up  the  Ottawa  River, 
then  by  a  short  portage  and  a  series  of  small  lakes  to  Lake 
Huron.  From  this  point  the  most  remote  shores  of  Lakes 
Superior  and  Michigan  could  be  easily  reached.  By  the 
aid  of  several  small  bodies  of  water  west  of  Lake  Superior, 
Lake  Winnipeg  and  Great  Slave  Lake  were  finally  discov- 
ered ;  but  from  this  point  the  waterways  into  the  West 
were  small  and  could  be  followed  no  farther,  so  that  it  was 
a  long  time  before  the  Rocky  Mountains  were  crossed. 

By  floating  down  the  Illinois  River  the  French  arrived 
at  the  Mississippi,  explored  much  of  its  course,  and  took 
possession  of  the  country  in  advance  of  the  English.  This 
fact  was  directly  due  to  the  difficulties  which  the  Eng- 
lish explorers  experienced  in  forcing  their  way  over  the 
Appalachian  highlands. 

The  Spanish  explored  the  southern  shores  of  the  conti- 
nent, and  crossing  the  Isthmus,  were  the  first  to  behold 
the  Pacific.  The  fact  that  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica was  so  easily  reached  at  this  point  gave  the  Spanish  a 
great  advantage,  and  explains  why  they  gained  such  a  hold 
upon  the  lands  bordering  that  ocean.     It  was  a  compara- 


INFLUENCE   OF   CLIMATE  207 

tively  simple  matter  for  them  to  fit  out  ships,  and  sailing 
north  and  south,  to  take  possession  wherever  they  desired. 
However,  when  they  had  gone  as  far  as  California,  their 
progress  was  for  a  long  time  almost  completely  blocked  by 
storms  and  head  winds,  for  the  prevailing  direction  of  the 
wind  is  down  the  coast.  The  Spanish  finally  reached 
Vancouver  Island,  but  never  succeeded  in  making  set- 
tlements north  of  San  Francisco.  Even  the  interior  of 
California  was  little  known  to  them,  for  the  mountains 
and  deserts  discouraged  their  progress  in  that  direction. 

From  an  examination  of  a  map  we  might  suppose  that 
the  Colorado  River  would  offer  as  good  a  means  for  pene- 
trating the  continent  as  did  the  Mississippi  River,  but  as 
a  matter  of  fact  it  is  navigable  for  a  comparatively  short 
distance.  The  Spanish  made  one  attempt  to  ascend  this 
river,  but  finding  themselves  surrounded  on  every  hand  by 
a  most  desolate,  barren  country,  they  turned  back  before 
reaching  the  Grand  Canon.  In  the  eager  search  for  gold 
the  Spaniards  pushed  north  from  Mexico  and  planted  set- 
tlements in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  but  upon  the  north- 
west their  progress  was  stopped  by  canons  and  deserts. 

Now  we  are  prepared  to  understand  why  it  was  that  the 
western  portion  of  North  America  remained  for  so  long  a 
time  a  mysterious  and  unknown  region.  There  were  no 
waterways  by  which  it  could  be  explored,  while  snow-clad 
mountains  and  deserts  made  access  to  it  doubly  difficult. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  the  Americans  had 
overcome  the  natural  obstacles  in  their  westward  progress, 
and  their  settlements  reached  as  far  into  the  wilderness  as 
the  Mississippi  River.  Hunters  and  traders  were  soon 
pushing  far  beyond,  spreading  over  the  Great  Plains  and 
up  to  the  very  base  of  the  Rocky,  or  Stony  Mountains,  as 


208  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

they  were  then  called.  The  Missouri  River  became  the 
great  highway  into  the  Northwest,  for  the  adventurers  took 
advantage  of  the  streams  wherever  possible.  Many  other 
rivers  were  discovered  flowing  from  the  western  mountains, 
but  with  the  exception  of  the  Platte  and  Arkansas  they  were 
generally  too  shallow  for  navigation  even  with  a  light  canoe. 

Starting  in  the  early  spring  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mis- 
souri, the  hardy  trappers  sailed  and  paddled  up  the  river, 
taking  several  months  to  reach  the  head  of  navigation  at  the 
Great  Falls.  In  the  autumn,  when  the  boats  were  loaded 
with  furs,  it  was  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  drop  down 
the  river  with  the  current.  It  would  have  been  almost  im- 
possible to  transport  the  loads  of  goods  on  pack-horses 
across  the  thousand  miles  of  prairie,  where  the  traders 
would  be  subject  to  attack  from  hostile  Indians. 

Adventurous  men  pushed  farther  and  farther  west 
through  the  passes  in  the  mountains  and  began  trapping 
upon  the  waters  which  flow  into  the  Pacific.  It  had  long 
been  supposed  that  the  Rocky  Mountains  formed  a  barrier 
beyond  which  our  country  could  not  be  extended,  and  that 
the  Pacific  slope  was  made  up  of  mountains  and  deserts 
not  worth  securing. 

The  explorers  showed  that  the  Rocky  Mountains  were 
not  continuous,  but  consisted  of  partly  detached  ranges, 
and  that  while  their  eastern  fronts  were  indeed  almost 
impassable  for  long  distances,  there  were  places  so  low 
that  it  was  difficult  to  locate  the  exact  spot  where  the  waters 
parted  to  seek  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
In  southwestern  Wyoming  the  continental  divide,  known 
as  the  Great  Divide  mesa,  though  more  than  a  mile  above 
the  sea,  is  but  a  continuation  of  the  long,  gentle  slope  of 
the  Great  Plains. 


INFLUENCE   OF   CLIMATE 


209 


The  Rocky  Mountains  decrease  in  height  toward  the 
south,  near  the  line  between  New  Mexico  and  Colorado. 
Here  is  situated  Raton  Pass,  an  ancient  Indian  highway 
from  the  valley  of  the  Arkansas  to  the  Rio  Grande. 
In  the  early  half  of  the  last  century  this  trail  was  much 


Fig.  93.  —  O.v  the  Continental  Divide  in  Southwestern  Wyoming 

used  by  the  caravans  of  traders  and  came  to  be  known  as 
the  Santa  Fe  trail. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  American  occupation  of  Cali- 
fornia, the  Santa  Fe  trail  became  an  important  route  to 
the  Pacific.  From  the  Mexican  town  of  Santa  Fe  it  led 
down  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  following  the  old  road 
to  Mexico,  and  then  turned  west  across  the  broad  plateau 
of  the  continental  divide,  not  far  from  the  present  course 
of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad.  Passing  Tucson,  the 
road  kept  near  the  course  of  the  Gila  River  to  Fort  Yuma, 


2IO  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

and  then  led  over  the  Colorado  Desert  to  Los  Angeles. 
This  path  avoided  all  the  high  mountains,  but  much  of  it 
lay  across  deserts,  where  the  heat  and  scarcity  of  water 
made  it  an  impracticable  route  for  the  emigrants. 

One  not  acquainted  with  the  physical  geography  of  the 
West  might  wonder  why  the  gold-seekers  on  their  way  to 
California  did  not  make  use  of  the  Missouri  River,  which, 
except  for  the  Great  Falls,  was  navigable  for- small  boats  to 
the  very  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  A  partial  explana- 
tion is  found  in  the  report  of  the  hardships  endured  by  the 
Lewis  and  Clark  exploring  expedition,  and  later  by  the 
Astor  party,  which  went  out  to  found  a  fur  trading  post  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  It  had  been  supposed  that 
after  once  crossing  the  continental  divide  it  would  be  an 
easy  matter  to  embark  upon  some  stream  and  float  down 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  parties  referred  to  became  lost 
in  the  defiles  of  the  mountains,  and  when  they  finally 
reached  the  Snake  River  it  was  only  to  find  that  rapids 
and  waterfalls  continually  obstructed  navigation.  Although 
there  was  in  most  places  plenty  of  water  upon  this  northern 
route,  yet  the  mountains  were  impassable  for  wagons. 

Because  of  these  conditions  the  emigrants  started  out 
boldly  across  the  plains,  following  the  general  course  of 
the  Platte  River,  and  crossing  the  Rocky  Mountain  divide 
at  the  South  Pass  in  western  Wyoming,  a  place  famous  in 
its  day.  At  this  point  those  who  were  going  to  Oregon 
turned  northwestward  to  Fort  Hall,  a  trading  post  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company.  From  here  they  crossed  southern 
Idaho,  keeping  near  the  course  of  the  Snake  River  until 
they  reached  the  point  where  it  enters  the  grand  canon  ; 
there  they  left  the  river,  and  climbing  over  the  Blue 
Mountains,  entered    the  fertile  valleys  about  the  present 


INFLUENCE   OF   CLIMATE 


211 


city  of  Walla  Walla.  From  this  place  the  emigrants 
followed  the  Columbia  River  to  The  Dalles,  whence  they 
proceeded  either  by  boat  or  raft  until  Fort  Vancouver  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Willamette  were  finally  gained.  Wagons 
were  taken  through  on  this  route,  and  it  was  not  dangerous, 


Fig.  94. —  The  Old  Santa  Fe  Trail 
Over  this  thousands  of  freight  and  emigrant  wagons  have  passed 

although  accidents  sometimes  happened  at  the  Cascades, 
where  locks  were  built  at  a  later  day. 

The  emigrants  for  California,  who  were  the  most 
numerous,  turned  southwest  at  South  Pass,  and  after 
crossing  the  Wasatch  Range  through  Emigration  Canon, 
came  out  upon  the  plain  of  Great  Salt  Lake.  Then,  trav- 
ersing desert  plains,  they  reached  the  Humboldt  River, 
which  they  followed  until  it  sank  into  the  sands. 


212  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

Several  routes  had  been  opened  across  the  Sierra 
Nevada  mountains  into  California,  but  those  through  the 
Carson  and  Donner  passes  were  most  used.  Several  high 
ranges  of  mountains  lay  between  the  Willamette  Valley  of 
Oregon  and  the  Great  Valley  of  California,  so  that  in  the 
early  days  there  was  very  little  travel  between  these  two 
territories.  The  overland  trip  required  so  long  a  time,  and 
involved  such  dangers  and  hardships,  that  many  pre- 
ferred the  water  route,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  its  ships 
were  crowded,  and  the  voyagers  must  cross  the  fever- 
infected  Isthmus. 

It  is  very  interesting  to  note  how  widely  different  the 
rivers  are  upon  the  opposite  sides  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Those  upon  the  east,  with  the  exception  of  the  Missouri 
at  the  Great  Falls,  are  not  marked  by  waterfalls  after  leav- 
ing the  mountains.  There  are  few  canons  of  importance. 
The  streams  generally  flow  in  channels  only  slightly  sunken 
below  the  general  level  of  the  Great  Plains.  The  streams 
upon  the  west,  on  the  contrary,  are  broken  by  rapids  and 
waterfalls,  and  are  generally  buried  in  canons  so  deep  and 
precipitous  that  in  places  a  man  might  die  of  thirst  in 
sight  of  water. 

No  other  great  migration  of  people  over  the  surface 
of  the  earth  ever  encountered  such  difficulties  as  that  which 
pressed  westward  after  the  discovery  of  gold.  It  was  at 
first  thought  that  railroads  could  not  be  constructed  through 
the  mountains  and  deserts,  and  until  the  mineral  wealth  of 
the  West  became  known,  many  men  believed  that  the 
greater  portion  of  the  country  was  not  worth  taking. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  consider  each  of  the  main 
lines  of  railroad  which  connect  the  Mississippi  Valley 
with    the   Pacific,  and   study   the  features   of  the   country 


INFLUENCE    OF    CLIMATE 


213 


through  which  it  runs,  determining  as  far  as  possible  the 
surveyor's  reasons  for  selecting  that  particular  course. 
Some  of  the  railroads  follow  for  long  distances  the  routes 
of  the  emigrants.  The  emigrants,  in  their  turn,  often 
made  use  of  the  ancient  Indian  trails. 


Yig.  95.  —  The  Carson  Pass,  Summit  of  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 
One  of  the  main  emigrant  routes  to  the  Pacific  Coast 

While  Nature  seems  to  have  striven  to  raise  impassable 
barriers  to  shut  off  the  Pacific  slope  from  the  rest  of 
the  continent,  yet  she  failed  at  some  points,  and  through 
the  unguarded  passes  the  wild  animals  and  Indians  first 
found  their  way.  Then  came  the  trappers,  prospectors, 
farmers,  and  at  last  the  railroad,  until  the  wilderness  was 
over-run. 


214  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

Because  of  its  temperate  climate,  abundant  rainfall,  and 
rich  soil,  the  Mississippi  Valley  was  rapidly  settled  after 
the  pioneers  had  once  reached  it.  The  plains  rising  slowly 
westward  toward  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  were 
found  to  be  more  arid  the  farther  they  were  explored. 
Consequently  there  exists  a  broad  strip  of  plain  which 
is  even  to-day  sparsely  settled.  The  emigrants  went 
on  to  the  fertile  valleys  nearer  the  Pacific,  where  the 
rainfall  is  more  abundant.  The  American  settlers  did  not 
then  understand  irrigation,  although  it  was  practised  by 
the  Mexicans  to  the  south.  Because  the  discovery  of 
precious  metals  was  first  made  in  California,  the  pioneers 
crossed  the  intervening  mountains  without  giving  a  thought 
to  the  mineral  riches  which  might  be  concealed  in  their 
depths.  Later,  mines  were  opened  in  the  mountains  all 
through  the  arid  regions.  The  necessity  of  providing  food 
for  the  miners  brought  about  the  discovery  that  the  desert 
lands  were  very  productive  wherever  the  waters  of  the 
streams  could  be  brought  to  them. 


THE   LIFE   OF   THE   PROSPECTOR 

Perhaps  some  of  us  who  have  comfortable  homes,  sleep 
upon  soft  beds,  wear  neat  clothes,  and  can  obtain  every 
variety  of  food  that  we  wish,  think  with  pity  of  the  men 
who  lead  a  rough  and  lonely  life  among  the  mountains  far 
from  all  comforts.  Let  us  learn  something  more  about 
the  life  and  work  of  the  prospectors,  for  we  may  find 
much  that  is  desirable  in  their  experiences. 

Not  many  thousands  of  years  ago  our  ancestors  led  what 
we  would  now  call  a  wild  and  savage  life.  They  had  no 
permanent  homes,  but  wandered  here  and  there  in  search 
of  food,  and  lived  in  caves  or  constructed  the  rudest  kind 
of  shelter  from  the  storms.  Perhaps  we  are  right  in  feel- 
ing thankful  that  we  were  not  born  in  those  primitive  times, 
but  are  there  not  really  many  things  to  regret  about  the 
way  in  which  we  have  to  live  at  the  present  day  ? 

The  utterly  free  outdoor  life  is  not  open  to  many.  We 
have  little  or  no  opportunity  to  become  acquainted  with 
Nature,  the  guardian  of  our  ancestors.  The  woods,  the 
rocks,  the  mountains,  and  the  dashing  streams  are  almost 
complete  strangers  to  many  of  us. 

Many  men  are  now  obliged  to  go  every  day  to  their 
work  in  office  or  shop,  and  spend  the  hours  shut  in  from 
the  fresh  air  and  bright  sunshine.  At  night  they  sleep 
in  rooms  into  which  they  admit  little  fresh  air  for  fear  of 
taking  cold.  To-day  each  man  has  to  learn  to  do  one 
thing  well  to  the  exclusion  of  nearly  everything  else,  in 

215 


2l6  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

order  to  make  a  living.  For  this  very  reason  we  are  in 
danger  of  becoming  human  machines  and  of  losing  the  use 
of  some  of  the  powers  with  which  Nature  has  endowed 
us.  Many  things  about  our  present  mode  of  life  are  not 
natural  to  us,  but  through  successive  generations  we  have 
become  somewhat  adapted  to  them.  The  Indians,  if  taken 
from  a  life  in  the  open  air  and  made  to  live  as  we  do, 
often  sicken  and  die. 

The  farmer  enjoys  much  more  freedom  and  more  of  the 
sweet  fresh  air  than  do  the  artisans  and  office  workers  ;  but 
of  all  the  men  in  civilized  countries  the  trappers  and  pros- 
pectors live  most  out  of  doors.  To  be  sure,  they  have  to 
endure  many  hardships  and  dangers,  and  their  beds  are 
not  always  the  softest  nor  their  food  the  best,  but  you  will 
seldom  find  one  who  is  willing  to  exchange  his  free  life  for 
work  in  the  town  or  city. 

The  trappers  have  nearly  disappeared.  Their  occupa- 
tion will  be  gone  with  the  passing  of  the  wild  animals 
which  were  once  so  abundant.  The  prospectors  are,  how- 
ever, becoming  more  numerous  year  by  year  throughout 
the  mountains  of  western  America.  To  them  we  owe  a 
great  debt,  for  had  not  their  searching  eyes  brought  to 
light  the  hidden  mineral  deposits  this  portion  of  our  country 
would  be  far  more  thinly  populated  than  it  is  to-day. 

The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  was  accidental.  A 
man  named  Marshall  was  building  a  mill  for  Sutter  in  the 
foot-hills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  at  the  time  (1848) 
when  California  had  just  come  into  the  possession  of  the 
United  States.  While  at  work  he  noticed  some  shining 
grains  in  the  sand  of  the  mill-race.  A  little  testing  of  the 
grains  led  him  to  the  conclusion  that  they  were  gold. 

The    news    spread    rapidly   over   the    world,   and    since 


THE    LIFE   OF   THE   PROSPECTOR 


217 


that  time  a  constantly  increasing  tide  of  gold-seekers  has 
been  pushing  out  into  the  unexplored  portions  of  the  earth. 
Comparatively  few  of  these  men  have  become  wealthy,  but 
their  discoveries  have  led  to  the  settlement  of  new  regions 
and  to  the  growth  of  important  industries.  In  truth,  if  it 
were  not  for  the  depos- 
its of  valuable  metals, 
large  areas  of  the  desert 
and  mountainous  West 
would  be  of  small  value. 

The  prospector  needs 
little  capital  except 
health  and  strength,  but 
he  must  be  willing  to 
lead  a  rough  life.  He 
will  be  more  likely  to 
succeed  if  he  knows 
something  about  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  minerals 
and  rocks,  and  is  able 
to  distinguish  the  valu- 
able ones  from  those 
which  are  of  little  or 
no  worth. 

The  prospector  may  have  a  pack-horse  and  a  second 
horse  to  ride,  or  he  may  go  afoot  with  merely  two  burros 
to  carry  blankets,  provisions,  and  tools.  A  burro  costs 
little  and  will  live  upon  almost  anything.  The  variety 
of  food  that  can  be  carried  is  not  large ;  such  things  as 
bacon,  flour,  sugar,  beans,  and  coffee  are  the  most  impor- 
tant. With  the  rifle  one  may  frequently  add  to  the  supply. 
This,  you  may  think,  is  pretty  hard  fare,  but  life  in  the 


Fig.  96.  —  A  Pkosi'EcroR  in  the  Desert 


218  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

open  air  will  make  one  hungry  enough  to  relish  almost 
any  sort  of  food. 

The  prospector  does  not  need  a  road  or  even  a  trail. 
He  seeks  the  least-known  portion  of  some  mountain 
district  where  he  has  an  idea  that  gold  may  be  found. 
Through  the  canons  he  goes,  and  over  the  mountains, 
either  on  horseback  or  driving  the  burros  before  him. 
Water  and  grass  are  usually  abundant,  and  the  little 
cavalcade  stops  where  night  overtakes  it.  In  the  desert 
prospecting  is  more  difficult  and  often  dangerous,  because 
of  the  scarcity  of  water.  It  is  necessary  to  know  the  loca- 
tion of  the  few  scattered  springs,  and  to  make  one  of  the 
burros  useful  in  carrying  water  kegs.  A  spring  must  be 
the  starting-point  in  the  morning,  and  a  sufficient  amount 
of  water  must  be  taken  to  last  until  the  traveller  can  get 
back  to  the  same  spring  or  until  he  can  reach  another. 

A  pick,  a  shovel,  and  a  hammer  are  among  the  most 
important  parts  of  the  prospector's  outfit.  Gold  is  a  heavy 
substance,  and  as  it  washes  down  the  mountain  sides  and 
into  the  gulches  from  some  quartz  vein,  its  weight  finally 
takes  it  to  the  bed-rock  beneath  the  sand  and  gravel.  With 
his  pick  and  shovel  the  prospector  can  reach  the  bed-rock. 
He  takes  some  of  the  gravel  from  its  hiding-place  close  to 
the  rock,  places  it  in  a  pan  filled  with  water,  and  then, 
with  a  peculiar  rotary  movement,  washes  away  the  lighter 
materials,  leaving  the  heavier  substances  and  the  gold,  if 
there  is  any,  at  the  bottom  of  the  pan.  If  there  is  no 
trace  of  gold,  the  prospector  goes  on  to  another  creek  ;  but 
if  some  of  the  yellow  metal  is  washed  out,  he  tests  the 
place  thoroughly  for  more. 

In  searching  for  ledges  the  prospector  spends  his  time 
in    the    smaller    gulches    and    upon    the    mountain    sides. 


THE   LIFE   OF   THE    PROSPECTOR 


219 


Every  piece  of  detached  quartz  that  meets  his  eye  is  ex- 
amined, and  if  any  specks  of  gold  appear,  the  search  is 
directed  toward  the  vein  or  ledge  from  which  the  speci- 
men came.  With  the  hammer,  pieces  of  quartz  are  broken 
from  the  veins  which  here  and  there  rise  above  the  surface 


Yig.  97.  —  A  Prospector's  Cabin  in  the  Rocky  Mountains 

of  loose  and  crumbling  rock.  When  the  worker  finds  a 
piece  that  is  stained  with  iron  and  has  the  appearance 
of  carrying  gold,  he  places  it  in  his  bag  and  keeps  it  for 
further  examination.  At  camp,  the  pieces  of  quartz  are 
pounded  to  a  powder  in  a  mortar  and  then  washed  in  a 
horn  spoon.  A  string  of  fine  grains  of  gold  tells  of  the 
discovery  of  a  rich  vein. 

It  is  not  usually  an  easy  matter  to  find  the  home  of  a 
piece  of  stray  quartz  upon  the  mountain  side.      Days  and 


220  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

weeks  may  pass  while  search  is  made  up  the  slope,  for 
the  fragment  must  have  come  from  some  point  above. 
But  the  ledge,  once  discovered,  is  traced  along  the  surface 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  its  direction  and  extent. 

When  a  promising  bed  of  gravel  or  a  vein  of  gold- 
bearing  quartz  is  found,  the  prospector  posts  the  proper 
notices  of  his  right  to  the  claim  and  has  them  recorded 
at  the  nearest  land  office.  Then  he  makes  a  permanent 
camp  by  cutting  down  trees  and  building  a  cabin.  The 
interior  of  the  cabin  is  very  simple.  Its  table  and  chairs 
are  made  of  split  lumber.  One  end  of  the  single  room  is 
occupied  by  the  bunk,  and  the  other  by  a  large  fireplace. 
There  may  be  no  windows,  and  the  roof  may  be  made  of 
earth  piled  upon  logs,  or  of  long  split  shingles  commonly 
known  as  shakes. 

Sometimes,  after  discovering  a  very  rich  quartz  ledge, 
the  prospector  goes  back  to  a  settlement  to  attempt  to 
interest  some  one  in  buying  or  developing  it.  Sometimes 
it  happens  that  he  loses  the  location  of  the  vein  and  can- 
not go  back  to  the  place  where  it  was  discovered.  In  this 
way  his  discovery  becomes  a  "  lost  mine,"  and  grows  in 
importance  in  people's  minds  as  the  story  of  its  riches 
spreads  from  one  to  another.  Although  men  may  spend 
years  looking  for  such  mines,  they  are  not  often  found 
again. 

Frequently  two  men  go  prospecting  together  so  that 
their  work  will  be  less  dangerous  and  lonely.  If  they  are 
not  at  once  successful,  they  manage  in  some  way  to  get 
supplies  for  a  trip  each  year  into  the  mountains.  Often 
they  are  "grub-staked,"  that  is,  some  man  who  has  money 
furnishes  their  supplies  in  return  for  a  share  in  their  find- 
ings. 


THE   LIFE   OF   THE   PROSPECTOR 


221 


If  they  have  enough  to  eat,  the  prospectors,  in  their 
snug  cabin,  are  comfortable  and  happy.  The  cabin  is 
built  as  near  as  possible  to  the  mine,  so  that  the  men  need 
not  be  cut  off  from  their  work  during  the  stormy  weather. 
The  temperature  underground  is  about  the  same  in  both 
winter  and  summer,  so  that  winter  storms  and  summer 
heat  form  no  hindrance  to  the  work. 


Fig.  98.  —  Mouth  of  a  Tunnel 

Years  spent  in  life  of  this  kind  lead  men  to  love  the 
mountains.  They  feel  a  sympathy  with  Nature  and  a 
companionship  in  her  presence.  When  they  have  to  visit 
the  town  for  supplies,  they  long  to  get  back  to  their  little 
cabins.  They  feel  lost  in  the  whirl  and  confusion  of  the 
city. 

Summer  is  a  delightful  time  at  the  many  little  miners' 
cabins  scattered  through  the  mountains.  The  air  is  invig- 
orating, the  water  pure  and  cold.     There  is  everything  in 


222  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

the  surroundings  to  make  one  happy.  In  the  winter  the 
miner  sits  by  his  great  fireplace,  with  the  flames  roaring 
up  the  chimney.  He  has  no  stove  to  make  the  air  close 
and  oppressive.  About  the  fireplace  his  dishes  are  ar- 
ranged— the  kettle  for  beans,  the  coffee-pot,  and  the  Dutch 
oven  in  which  the  bread  is  baked.  If  there  are  some  old 
paper-covered  story-books  at  hand,  it  does  not  matter  how 
fiercely  the  storms  rage  without.  Ask  any  old  prospector 
who  has  spent  years  in  this  manner  if  he  would  exchange 
his  cabin  for  a  house  in  the  city,  and  he  will  most  decidedly 
answer  "no." 

This  lonely  life  in  the  mountains  seems  to  engender 
hospitality.  The  old-time  prospector  will  make  you  wel- 
come to  his  cabin  and  will  share  his  last  crust  with  you. 
When  he  asks  you  in  to  have  some  coffee  and  beans,  he 
does  not  do  it  merely  for  the  sake  of  being  polite,  and  he 
will  feel  hurt  if  you  do  not  accept  his  hospitality.  His 
dishes  may  not  be  as  white  as  those  to  which  you  are  ac- 
customed, but  I  will  venture  to  say  that  you  have  never 
tasted  better  beans  than  those  with  which  he  will  fill  your 
plate  from  his  soot-begrimed  kettle. 

We  ought  all  to  see  more  of  this  wild  life.  Even  if  we 
do  not  care  to  make  our  permanent  homes  among  the 
mountains,  it  would  do  us  good  to  go  there  every  summer 
at  least,  and  so  not  only  become  stronger,  but  cultivate 
that  familiarity  with  and  love  for  outdoor  life  which  our 
ancestors  enjoyed. 


GOLD   AND    GOLD-MINING 

Gold  derives  its  value  partly  from  its  purchasing  power, 
partly  from  those  properties  which  make  it  serviceable 
in  the  arts,  and  partly  from  its  beauty.  The  high  esteem 
in  which  gold  money  is  held  is  as  much  the  result  of  its 
comparative  rarity  as  of  its  physical  properties.  Among 
nearly  all  the  nations  of  the  world  it  has  been  agreed  upon 
as  a  standard  of  exchange.  Gold  has  one  disadvantage 
as  a  medium  of  exchange ;  it  is  rather  too  soft  to  wear 
well.  But  this  difficulty  is  overcome  by  alloying  the  gold 
with  another  mineral  of  nearly  the  same  color,  —  copper, 
for  instance. 

In  order  that  we  may  understand  better  the  position 
which  gold  occupies  in  the  arts  and  trades  of  the  world, 
let  us  compare  it  with  other  metals,  and  first  with  platinum. 
This  mineral  is  far  less  abundant  and  has  many  properties 
which  make  it  valuable  in  the  arts.  Like  gold,  platinum 
is  malleable  and  ductile  and  does  not  tarnish  in  the  air,  but 
it  differs  from  gold  in  not  being  easily  fusible,  so  that  it 
is  used  in  the  laboratory  for  crucibles.  The  steel-gray 
color  of  platinum  is,  however,  so  much  less  attractive  than 
the  yellow  of  gold,  that  it  is  not  used  for  ornamental 
purposes. 

An  effort  was  made  at  one  time  by  Russia,  where  a  com- 
paratively large  amount  of  platinum  is  found,  to  coin  this 
metal  into  money,  but  its  continued  use  was  not  found 
practicable  because  of  its  changing  price  in  the  markets  of 

223 


224  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

the  world.  If  the  leading  nations  would  agree  upon  a 
fixed  value  for  platinum,  it  might  be  used  like  gold  as  a 
medium  of  exchange. 

Silver  is  brighter  and  more  attractive  than  platinum,  but 
is  of  little  use  in  the  laboratory.  It  has  been  found  in 
recent  years  to  be  so  much  more  abundant  than  gold  that 
its  value  has  decreased  greatly  as  a  commercial  article. 
In  our  country  when  coined  it  has,  like  paper  money,  been 
given  a  value  equal  to  gold. 

The  diamond  has  a  value  far  exceeding  that  of  gold,  but 
this  value  is  dependent  almost  wholly  upon  its  ornamental 
properties,  although  the  brilliant  stone  is  also  useful  as 
an  abrasive  and  cutting  agent. 

From  these  facts  it  is  evident  that  gold,  because  of  its 
rarity,  its  physical  properties,  and  its  beauty,  combines  a 
larger  number  of  desirable  characteristics  than  any  other 
mineral. 

Gold  can  be  found  in  very  small  quantities  nearly  every- 
where. It  is  present  in  all  the  rocks  and  also  in  sea-water. 
The  gold  that  is  distributed  in  this  manner  is  of  no  value 
to  us,  for  it  would  cost  many  times  as  much  to  obtain  it  as 
it  is  worth.  Nature  has,  however,  concentrated  it  for  us 
in  some  places.  In  portions  of  the  world  where  the  crust 
has  been  folded  and  broken  there  are  veins  of  quartz 
extending  in  long,  narrow,  and  irregular  sheets  through  the 
rocks.  This  quartz  is  the  home  of  the  gold,  and  it  is 
usually  found  in  hilly  or  mountainous  regions. 

Do  not  mistake  the  yellow  iron  pyrites  for  gold.     Pyrites 

is  brittle,  while  gold  is    malleable.     You    can    hammer   a 

little  grain  of   gold  into  a  thin  sheet.      Do  not  make  the 

.mistake,  either,  of  thinking  that  the  shining  yellow  scales 

of  mica  which  you  see  in  the  sand  in  the  bottom  of  a  clear 


GOLD    AND   GOLD-MINING 


225 


stream  are  gold.  These  yellow  minerals  that  look  like 
gold  have  been  called  "  fools'  gold  "  because  people  have 
sometimes  been  utterly  deceived  by  them. 

Upon  the  Pacific  slope  minerals  are  now  being  deposited 
in   some   of    the   openings   of   the   rocks   from   which   hot 


Fig.  99.  —  A  Gold-Silver  Mine 
Summit  of  San  Juan  Range,  Colorado 

springs  issue.  A  study  of  these  springs  has  led  to  the 
opinion  that  the  gold-bearing  quartz  veins  were  formed  in 
a  similar  manner,  but  at  a  very  remote  time  in  the  past. 

The  milky  or  glassy  quartz,  which  is  so  hard  that  you 
cannot  scratch  it  with  the  point  of  your  knife,  the  little 
grains    of    pale    yellow  iron  pyrites,  and    the   grains  and 


226 


THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 


threads  of  gold  scattered  through  the  quartz,  were  at  one 
time  in  solution  in  water.  This  water  came  from  some 
region  far  down  in  the  earth,  farther  than  we  can  ever 
reach  with  the  deepest  shafts,  and  there,  where  it  is  very 
hot  and  the  pressure  is  great,  the  water  dissolved  the  little 
particles  of  gold  and  other  minerals  from  the  rocks ;  and 


Fig.   ioo.  —  Hydraulic  Mining  on  the  Klamath  River,  California 

then,  gathering  them  up,  bore  them  along  toward  the  sur- 
face, depositing  them  as  solid  particles  again  in  the  form 
of  veins  in  the  fissures  through  which  the  stream  was 
passing. 

As  the  rocks  upon  the  surface  decay  and  the  crumbling 
material  is  carried  away  by  running  water,  the  gold,  being 
very  heavy,  washes  down  the  hillsides  and  is  at  last 
gathered  in  the  gulches.  This  fact  explains  why  we 
find  gold  both  in  veins  and  in  the  gravel  of  the  streams. 


GOLD   AND   GOLD-MINING 


227 


Getting  gold  from  the  veins  is  called  quartz-mining. 
Washing  it  from  the  gravel  is  called  placer-mining  ;  and 
if  the  gravel  is  deep  and  a  powerful  stream  of  water  is 
required,  the  work  is  called  hydraulic  mining. 

Every  one  has  heard  of  the  Mother  Lode  of  California. 
Every  miner  wishes  that  his  mine  were  upon  this  famous 
lode,  which  is  made  up  of  a  large  number  of  quartz  veins 


Fig.  ioi.  —  May  Rock,  a  Vein  of  Quartz  on  the  Mother  Lode 


extending  along  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains,  and  is  marked  by  hundreds  of  important 
mines.  A  line  of  towns  marks  the  course  of  the  Mother 
Lode  for  over  a  hundred  miles.  They  are  almost  entirely 
supported  by  the  gold  which  the  lode  supplies. 

The  gold  first  discovered  in  California  was  placer  gold. 
After  the  miners  had  worked  over  the  stream  gravels  and 
had  secured  all  that  they  could  in  that  way,  they  began  to 
search  for  the  home  of    the  gold.      It   could  not  always 


228 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


have  been  in  the  creek  beds,  and  the  miners  were  correct 
in  thinking  that  it  must  have  been  washed  from  some  other 
place.  Gold  was  so  frequently  found  in  pieces  of  loose 
or  float  quartz  that  this  fact  finally  turned  their  attention 
to  the  quartz  veins  which  were  numerous  upon  the  moun- 
tain slopes.  Then  came  the  discovery  of  the  series  of 
great  quartz  veins  now  known  as  the  Mother  Lode. 


Fig.  i  02.  —  An  Arastra 


When  the  miners  first  found  the  quartz  flecked  with 
gold,  they  used  the  simplest  means  for  separating  the  two 
substances.  If  the  quartz  was  very  rich  in  gold,  it  was 
pounded  and  ground  fine  in  a  hand  mortar.  Then  the 
lighter  quartz  was  washed  away  and  the  gold  left. 

The  miners  also  made  use  of  the  Mexican  arastra. 
This  is  a  very  crude  apparatus,  and  is  employed  even  now 
by  miners  who  cannot  afford  to  procure  a  stamp-mill.     To 


GOLD    AND   GOLD-MIXING 


229 


build  an  arastra,  a  circular  depression  ten  or  twelve  feet  wide 
and  a  foot  or  more  deep  is  made  in  the  ground.  This  de- 
pression is  lined  with  stone,  which  forms  a  hard  bottom  or 
floor.  Four  bars  extend  outward  from  an  upright  post 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  and  a  large  flat  stone  is 
fastened  to  the  end  of  each  bar  by  means  of  a  rope.     A 


Fig.  103. — The  Stamps  in  a  Quartz-mill 

0 

horse  is  hitched  to  one  of  the  bars,  which  is  purposely  left 
longer  than  the  others.  The  oVe  is  thrown  into  the  arastra, 
and  water  is  admitted,  a  little  at  a  time.  •  As  the  horse  is 
driven  around  the  stones  are  dragged  over  the  circular 
depression,  crushing  the  ore  and  setting  free  the  gold. 

This  way  of  separating  the  gold  was  too  slow,  and  in 
a  short  time  the  stamp-mill  was  invented.  It  has  grown 
from  a  very  simple  affair  into  the  great  mill  which  crushes 


230  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

hundreds  of  tons  of  ore  in  a  day.  The  iron  stamps  each 
weigh  nearly  half  a  ton.  They  are  raised  by  powerful 
machinery  and  allowed  to  drop  in  succession  upon  the 
ore,  which  is  gradually  fed  under  them.  The  stamps  crush 
the  ore  to  a  fine  sand  more  easily  and  rapidly  than  could  be 
done  by  any  other  method.  Water  is  kept  running  over 
the  ore,  and  as  fast  as  it  is  crushed  sufficiently  fine  for  the 
particles  to  pass  through  a  wire  screen,  the  water  with 
which  they  are  mixed  is  allowed  to  flow  over  large  plates 
of  copper  which  have  been  coated  with  quicksilver.  The 
latter  mineral  has  an  attraction  for  gold,  and  so  catches 
and  holds  most  of  the  particles,  no  matter  how  small  they 
are. 

The  compound  of  gold  and  quicksilver  is  a  soft  white 
substance  known  as  amalgam,  utterly  unlike  either  metal. 
When  the  amalgam  is  subjected  to  heat,  the  quicksilver  is 
driven  off  in  the  form  of  a  vapor,  and  the  gold  is  left  pure. 
The  quicksilver  vapor  is  condensed  in  a  cool  chamber  and 
is  used  again. 

The  iron  pyrites  in  the  ore  contains  gold  which  cannot  be 
separated  by  the  crushing  process  and  a  machine  called  a 
concentrator  has  been  invented  to  save  this  also.  After  pass- 
ing over  the  copper  plates  the  crushed  rock  and  pyrites  are 
washed  upon  a  broad,  flat  surface,  which  is  moving  in  such 
a  way  that  the  lighter  rock  waste  is  carried  away  by  the 
water.  The  pyrites  now  appears  as  a  dark,  heavy  sand. 
This  sand  is  placed  in  a  roasting  furnace,  where  the  sulphur 
is  driven  off,  and  the  gold  and  iron  are  left  together.  Now 
the  gold  is  dissolved  by  means  of  chlorine  gas,  with  which 
it  unites  in  a  compound  called  gold  chloride.  From  this 
compound  the  metallic  gold  is  easily  separated.  All  this 
may  seem  a  complicated  process,  but  it  is  carried  through 


GOLD   AND    GOLD-MINING 


231 


so  cheaply  that  the  ore  which  contains  only  two  or  three 
dollars  to  the  ton  can  be  profitably  worked. 

Not  all  quartz  veins  carry  gold.  There  are  many  in 
which  not  a  single  speck  of  the  precious  metal  can  be 
found.     Gold  usually  prefers  the  society  of  quartz  to  that 


Fig.  104.  —  Mining  the  Gravel  of  an  Old  River-bed 


of  other  substances,  for  minerals,  like  people,  seem  to 
have  their  likes  and  dislikes.  Along  the  Mother  Lode, 
however,  gold  is  sometimes  found  in  little  bunches  and 
"stringers"  scattered  through  slate.  In  such  cases  the 
slate  is  mined  and  sent  to  the  mill. 

Some  miners  devote  themselves  to  pocket  mining.  They 
trace  the  little  seams  in  the  rock,  and  where  two  seams 
cross  they  sometimes  find  what  they  call  a  "pocket." 
This   is   a  mass   of   nearly   [Hire   gold    of    irregular    shape, 


232  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

varying  from  a  few  dollars  to  thousands  of  dollars  in  value. 
This  kind  of  mining  is  very  uncertain  in  its  results,  for  a 
man  may  make  hundreds  of  dollars  in  one  day,  and  then 
not  find  anything  more  for  months. 

The  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  was 
once  covered  with  the  camps  of  thousands  of  placer  miners. 
Piles  of  boulders  and  gravel  are  scattered  along  the  creeks 
where  the  eager  workers  took  out  millions  of  dollars'  worth 
of  gold-dust  and  nuggets.  Now  many  of  the  streams  and 
gulches  are  entirely  deserted.  But  in  other  places,  where 
the  quartz  veins  outcrop,  there  are  scores  of  stamp-mills 
at  work,  night  and  clay,  pounding  out  the  gold.  Some 
of  the  mines  have  been  sunk  more  than  a  half  mile  into 
the  earth,  and  the  gold  is  still  as  abundant  as  ever. 

In  some  portions  of  the  mountains  hydraulic  mining  is 
more  common  than  quartz-mining.  Years  ago  many  of 
the  rivers  occupied  different  channels  from  their  present 
ones.  The  gravels  of  these  old  channels  in  the  Sierra 
Nevada  mountains,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  West  where 
gold-bearing  veins  occur,  are  rich  in  gold.  In  these  chan- 
nels the  gold  is  so  deeply  buried  that  it  cannot  usually  be 
obtained  by  means  of  pick  and  shovel.  In  order  that  the 
overlying  gravel  may  be  removed  as  cheaply  as  possible, 
water  is  supplied  by  means  of  ditches,  often  many  miles 
long.  From  some  near-by  hill  the  stream  is  conducted 
down  to  the  mine  in  strong  iron  pipes.  It  thus  acquires 
a  great  force,  and  when  directed  against  a  gravel  bank 
rapidly  washes  it  away.  Torrents  of  water  bearing  bould- 
ers, gravel,  and  sand,  together  with  the  particles  of  gold, 
are  turned  into  sluice  boxes  lined  at  the  bottom  with  quick- 
silver. This  metal  catches  the  gold  and  forms  an  amalgam 
as  it  docs  in  the  quartz-mills. 


COPPER-MINING 

There  is  a  city  hidden  away  in  a  narrow  canon  in  the 
extreme  southern  portion  of  Arizona  which  is  supported 
solely  by  a  copper-mine.  The  canon  lies  upon  the  south- 
ern slope  of  a  range  of  mountains,  and  from  its  mouth  one 
can  look  far  off  to  the  south  across  the  desert  plains  and 
mountains  of  Mexico.  The  city  has  an  elevation  of  more 
than  a  mile  above  the  sea,  and  the  canon  in  which  it  is 
situated  is  so  narrow  and  steep-walled  that  you  can  almost 
jump  down  from  one  street  upon  the  roofs  of  the  houses 
along  the  street  below.  Stairways,  instead  of  walks,  lead 
up  the  hillsides  from  the  main  street  in  the  bottom  of  the 
canon. 

You  might  well  wonder  at  the  position  of  the  city,  and 
think  that  out  of  all  the  waste  land  in  this  region  a  better 
place  might  have  been  selected  for  its  location.  But  cities 
grow  where  people  gather,  and  people  do  not  come  to  live 
in  the  desert  unless  there  is  important  work  to  be  done 
there. 

A  party  of  prospectors  who  were  searching  carefully 
over  the  mountains  found  several  mineral  veins  with 
green  copper  stains  crossing  this  canon  and  outcropping 
in  the  adjacent  hills.  Claims  were  staked  out  and  recorded 
at  the  nearest  land  office.  Then  shafts  and  tunnels  were 
opened,  and  the  miners  became  confident  from  the  rich 
character  of  the  ore  that  an  important  copper-mine  might 
be  developed. 

233 


234  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

Supplies  were  brought  across  the  desert  with  teams,  and 
cabins  were  built  in  the  lonely  cailon.  Then  an  enterpris- 
ing man  started  a  store.  As  the  mine  was  opened  farther, 
its  importance  was  better  understood.  There  was  a  call 
for  more  miners  and  the  town  grew  larger.  The  houses 
clustered  about  the  mine,  the  centre  of  all  the  activities. 
At  last  a  railroad  was  built,  and  the  town  became  a  city, 
with  narrow,  winding  streets  occupying  the  winding  canon, 
while  tier  upon  tier  of  houses  crept  up  the  sides  of  the 
canon,  which  formerly  had  been  covered  only  by  growths 
of  cactus  and  other  plants  of  the  desert. 

If  the  mine  should  close,  there  would  be  no  induce- 
ment to  keep  people  in  the  locality,  and  the  city  would 
become  merely  a  group  of  deserted  buildings.  Water  is 
so  scarce  that  only  a  small  amount  is  allowed  to  each 
family,  and  it  is  delivered  in  barrels  instead  of  by  pipes. 
Provisions  of  all  kinds  are  very  expensive,  for  they  have  to 
be  brought  a  long  distance. 

The  great  mine  supports  the  thousands  of  inhabitants. 
The  varied  industries  represented  there  are  dependent 
upon  it  alone.  As  long  as  it  pays  to  mine  the  copper, 
the  people  are  as  contented  as  if  they  were  not  tucked 
away  in  a  canon  in  a  remote  corner  of  the  world. 

The  most  interesting  things  to  be  seen  about  the  city 
are  the  mine  and  the  smelter.  In  the  former  the  ore  is 
obtained  ;  in  the  latter  the  ore  goes  through  various  pro- 
cesses until  it  comes  out  in  the  form  of  shining,  metallic 
copper.  The  copper  ore,  we  must  understand,  is  not  met- 
allic or  "  native  copper,"  as  it  is  called  when  found  pure, 
but  a  combination  of  copper  with  other  substances  which 
change  its  appearance  entirely. 

The  mine  is  opened  by  a  shaft,  that  is  a  square  hole  sunk 


'■*•    ~ 


r. 


c/l 

as      <u 


U     ex 


o    — 


236  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

in  the  ground.  The  shaft  of  this  mine  is  a  thousand  feet 
deep,  and  is  being  continually  extended  downward.  If  we 
wish  to  go  down  into  the  mine,  we  must  put  on  some  old 
clothes  and  get  the  foreman  to  act  as  guide.  The  cage  in 
which  we  are  to  descend  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  shaft, 
suspended  by  a  steel  rope.  It  looks  much  like  the  eleva- 
tors found  in  city  buildings.  At  different  levels  horizontal 
passages,  called  drifts,  extend  to  the  right  and  left  upon  the 
vein  of  copper  ore.  We  step  out  of  the  car  at  one  of  these 
levels  and  with  lighted  candles  start  to  walk  through  a  por- 
tion of  the  mine.  There  are  so  many  miles  of  tunnels  that 
it  would  take  us  days  to  go  through  them  all. 

Overhead,  under  our  feet,  and  upon  the  sides  of  the 
drift,  lies  the  vein  of  copper  ore,  presenting  a  different 
appearance  at  different  places.  The  various  ores  sparkle 
in  the  light  and  we  gather  specimens  of  each.  The  com- 
mon ore  is  chalcopyrite,  a  copper  sulphide  ;  that  is,  it  is 
composed  of  copper  and  sulphur.  It  has  a  brass-yellow 
color,  but  is  often  stained  with  beautiful  iridescent  tints. 
In  places  the  chalcopyrite  has  been  changed  to  the  deli- 
cate green  carbonate  of  copper  called  malachite.  In  other 
places  it  has  given  place  to  the  oxide  of  copper.  The 
little  crimson  crystals  of  this  mineral  give  bright  metallic 
reflections. 

The  deposit  of  copper  ore  is  apparently  inexhaustible, 
for  in  places  the  vein  widens  so  that  chambers  one  hun- 
dred feet  wide  and  several  hundred  feet  long  and  high 
have  been  made  in  taking  it  out. 

In  going  through  the  mine  we  have  to  be  very  careful 
not  to  step  into  openings  in  the  floor  of  the  passages,  or 
drop  rock  fragments  into  them,  for  far  below  miners  may  be 
working.    The  places  where  the  men  are  taking  out  the  ore 


COPPER-MINING 


237 


are  called  "  stopes,"  and  to  reach  them  we  have  to  crawl  and 
creep  through  all  sorts  of  winding  passages,  now  through 
a  "manhole,"  and  now  down  a  long  ladder  which  descends 
into  black  depths. 

From  the  stopes  the  ore,  as  it  is  blasted  out,  is  shovelled 
into  chutes  running  down  to  some  drift  where  there  are 
men  with  cars.  Each 
car  holds  about  a  ton 
of  ore,  and  after  being 
filled  it  is  pushed  along 
the  drift  and  upon  a 
cage  which  raises  it  to 
the  surface. 

The  mine  is  not  wet, 
for  there  is  so  little 
rain  in  this  region  that 
there  are  few  under- 
ground streams.  In 
places,  however,  it  is 
warm,  for  when  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  air  reaches 
the  fresh  sulphide  it 
begins  to  oxidize  the 
ore ;  that  is,  it  begins 
to  burn  it,  and   change 

it  into  a  different  compound,  just  as  fire  changes  wood 
or  coal.     Wherever  oxidation  is  going  on,  heat  is  produced. 

Fresh  air  is  constantly  needed  in  these  workings  far 
underground.  A  supply  is  forced  down  in  pipes,  and 
then  allowed  to  flow  back  to  the  surface.  In  this  way  a 
thorough  circulation  is  kept  up. 

Underground    one    loses    all    thought    of    the    changes 


Fig.  106. 


Homes  of  Miners,  Bisbee, 
Arizona 


238  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

between  night  and  day,  for  it  is  always  dark  there.  Con- 
sequently we  are  surprised  on  coming  up  from  the  mine 
to  find  that  night  has  settled  over  the  town.  Lights  are 
twinkling  everywhere,  and  miners  with  their  pails  of 
luncheon  are  coming  for  the  night  shift. 

Another  interesting  experience  now  awaits  us  in  the 
form  of  a  visit  to  the  smelter.  Here  the  bright  copper  is 
extracted  from  the  rough-looking  ores.  How  different  the 
two  substances  appear  !  They  look  as  if  they  had  scarcely 
anything  in  common. 

The  interior  of  the  smelter  seems  like  a  bit  of  the  in- 
fernal regions  set  upon  the  earth.  While  watching  what 
goes  on,  we  might  imagine  that  we  were  far  down  in  the 
earth,  where  Vulcan,  the  fire  god,  was  at  work.  At  night  the 
scene  is  particularly  weird  and  impressive,  for  the  shadows 
and  general  indistinctness  make  everything  appear  strange. 
The  glowing  furnaces,  the  showers  of  sparks,  the  roar  of 
the  blast  furnaces,  the  suffocating  fumes  of  sulphur,  and 
the  half-naked  figures  of  the  Mexican  workmen,  passing 
to  and  fro  with  cloths  over  their  mouths,  form  all  together 
a  bewildering  scene. 

The  ore  is  first  pulverized,  and  then  placed  in  large 
revolving  cylinders,  where  it  is  roasted.  A  fire  is  started 
in  the  cylinder  at  first,  but  after  the  ore  becomes  so  much 
heated  that  the  sulphur  in  it  begins  to  burn,  no  further 
artificial  aid  is  necessary.  Little  by  little  the  ore  is  added 
in  quantities  sufficient  to  keep  the  fire  going.  The  object 
of  the  roasting  is  to  drive  off  as  much  sulphur  as  possible. 

After  being  raked  from  the  roasting  furnace,  the  ore  is 
wheeled  in  barrows  to  the  huge  11  plight  furnaces  and 
is  thrown  in.  Here  such  materials  as  limestone  and  iron 
are  also  added  to  aid  in  the  formation  of  a  perfectly  fused 


COPPER-MINING 


239 


or  molten  mass.  These  substances  are  known  as  fluxes. 
With  the  melting  of  the  ore  the  copper  begins  to  separate 
from  the  impurities. 

The  melted  ore,  in  the  form  of  a  glowing  liquid,  gathers 
at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  and  runs  out  into  a  large 
kettle-like  receptacle.     When  one  of  these  vessels  is  full 


Fig.  107.  —  Shipping  Copper  Maiik 

it  is  tipped  up  and  the  molten  copper  which  has  collected 
at  the  bottom,  because  it  is  heavier  than  the  slag,  is 
allowed  to  run  into  another  large  kettle,  supported  by  chains 
from  a  rolling  truck  above. 

The  slag  is  dumped  into  a  car  and  is  carried  outside, 
while  the  huge  dish  containing  the  copper  and  some  slag 
is  swung  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  building,  where  its 
contents   are  cast  into  another  furnace.      A  very   strong 


240  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

blast  of  air  is  forced  up  through  the  molten  mass  in  this 
furnace,  and  the  remaining  portion  of  slag  is  blown  out  at 
the  top  in  a  shower  of  glowing  particles. 

From  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  the  liquid  copper  is 
drawn  out  and  allowed  to  run  into  moulds  where  it  finally 
cools.  It  is  then  known  as  copper  matte.  The  copper 
still  contains  some  impurities,  and  retains  in  addition  what- 
ever gold  and  silver  may  have  been  present  in  the  ore. 
Most  copper  ores  carry  a  small  amount  of  these  precious 
metals. 

The  heavy  bars  of  copper  matte  are  now  ready  for  ship- 
ment to  some  manufacturing  point,  where  they  are  refined 
still  further  and  made  into  the  various  copper  utensils, 
copper  wire,  etc.  Copper  is  valuable  for  many  purposes, 
as  it  does  not  rust  easily,  is  highly  malleable  and  ductile, 
and  is  a  good  conductor  of  electricity. 

In  the  great  copper-mines  upon  Lake  Superior,  copper 
is  found  in  the  native  state  mixed  with  the  rock,  and  does 
not  have  to  be  smelted ;  but  in  most  mines  the  ore  must 
go  through  a  process  very  like  the  one  described  before 
metallic  copper  can  be  obtained. 

It  does  not  matter  how  remote  a  region  may  be,  how 
intense  the  heat  or  cold,  or  how  desert-like  the  surrounding 
country,  men  will  go  to  it  if  minerals  of  value  are  dis- 
covered ;  and  there  they  will  perhaps  spend  the  whole 
of  their  lives,  mining  these  substances  which  are  of  such 
importance  to  the  industries  of  the  world. 


COAL   AND    PETROLEUM 

People  are  beginning  to  ask  where  fuel  will  be  obtained 
when  the  coal-beds  are  exhausted  and  the  petroleum  is  all 
pumped  out  of  the  earth.  The  cold  winters  will  not  cease 
to  come  regularly,  and  we  shall  continue  to  need  fires  for 
many  purposes.  This  is  a  question  which  need  not  trouble 
us.  So  long  as  the  sun  lasts  in  the  sky  and  the  oceans 
cover  so  much  of  the  earth,  and  so  long  as  there  are  moun- 
tains upon  the  land,  there  must  be  streams  with  rapids 
and  waterfalls.  The  power  of  these  streams,  which  has 
for  ages  gone  to  waste,  is  now  being  turned  into  electricity 
for  purposes  of  light  and  heat.  We  may  be  sure  that  long 
before  the  mines  cease  to  produce  coal  and  the  wells  to 
supply  petroleum,  there  will  be  something  better  ready  to 
take  their  places. 

But  coal  and  petroleum  are  still  such  important  commod- 
ities that  every  one  should  know  something  about  the  way 
in  which  they  were  made.  This  earth  of  ours  has  had  a 
very  long  history,  much  of  which  has  been  recorded  in 
the  rocks  beneath  our  feet,  and  the  record  is  more  accu- 
rate than  are  many  human  histories  which  have  been  pre- 
served in  the  printed  books. 

The  story  of  the  earth  has  been  divided  into  different 
periods,  each  marked  by  the  predominance  of  certain 
kinds  of  living  things.  The  Carboniferous  period  has 
been  so  named  because  at  that  time  the  climate  and 
features  of  the  earth  in  many  places  favored  the  growth 

241 


242  THE    WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

of  dense  and  heavy  vegetation.  This  vegetation  ac- 
cumulated through  the  long  years,  so  that  it  formed 
thick  deposits  which  gradually  changed  to  beds  of  coal. 
It  would  be  wrong,  however,  to  think  that  all  the  beds  of 
coal  were  formed  at  about  the  same  time.  Ever  since 
there  have  been  forests  and  marshes  upon  the  earth  there 
have  been  opportunities  for  the  forming  of  coal-beds. 
Materials  are  accumulating  even  now  which  will  in  time 
be  transformed  to  beds  of  coal. 

We  must  be  equally  careful  to  gain  correct  ideas  of 
the  making  of  petroleum,  for  many  wrong  notions  are 
current.  While  coal  has  come  from  the  accumulation  of 
plant  remains,  petroleum  has  been  derived  from  sea  or- 
ganisms, chiefly  animals.  If  coal  and  petroleum  are  found 
near  each  other,  the  occurrence  is  accidental  and  does  not 
mean  that  the  two  substances  are  in  any  way  related. 

Our  earth  is  very  old,  and  its  surface  has  gone  through 
many  transformations ;  mountains,  plains,  and  portions 
of  the  sea  floor  have  changed  places  with  one  another. 
Wherever  there  have  been  marshy  lowlands,  since  plants 
first  began  to  grow  luxuriantly  upon  the  earth,  it  has  been 
possible  for  beds  of  coal  to  be  formed.  We  all  know  how 
rankly  plants  grow  where  there  is  plenty  of  heat  and 
moisture.  Many  of  us  have  been  in  swampy  forests 
and  have  seen  the  masses  of  rotting  tree  trunks,  limbs, 
and  leaves.  Now,  if  we  should  form  a  picture  in  our 
minds  of  such  a  swamp  slowly  sinking  until  the  water  of 
some  lake  or  ocean  had  flowed  over  it  and  killed  the  plants, 
and  then  washed  sand  and  clay  upon  the  buried  forest 
until  it  was  covered  deeply  in  the  earth,  we  should  under- 
stand how  the  coal-beds  began.  Veins  of  coal  that  have 
been  opened    by   the  miners   frequently   show  trunks  and 


COAL   AND    PETROLEUM  243 

stumps  of  trees,  as  well  as  impressions  of  leaves  and 
ferns.  Underneath  the  coal  there  is  usually  a  bed  of  clay, 
while  above  sand  or  sandstone  is  commonly  found. 

The  oldest  coal  has  been  changed  the  most.  It  is  hard 
and  rather  difficult  to  ignite,  but  when  once  on  fire  it  gives 
more  heat  and  burns  longer  than  other  coals.  This  coal, 
known  as  anthracite,  is  not  found  extensively  in  the 
United  States  outside  of  Pennsylvania.  Coal  which  is 
younger  and  has  been  less  changed  by  the  heat  and  press- 
ure brought  to  bear  upon  it  when  it  was  buried  deep  in 
the  earth,  is  known  as  bituminous.  This  is  the  kind  of 
coal  which  is  found  in  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  valleys, 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  upon  the  Pacific  slope.  A 
still  younger  coal,  which  is  soft  and  has  a  brownish  color,  is 
called  lignite,  and  is  found  mostly  in  the  South  and  West. 

Still  another  sort  of  fuel,  known  as  peat,  is  found  in 
swamps  where  considerable  vegetation  is  now  accumu- 
lating, or  has  accumulated  in  recent  times.  Peat  is  a  mass 
of  plant  stems,  roots,  and  moss,  partly  decayed  and  pressed 
together.  In  countries  where  wood  is  scarce  peat  is  cut 
out,  dried,  and  used  for  fuel. 

The  larger  part  of  the  coal  in  the  eastern  United  States 
was  formed  during  the  Carboniferous  period.  That  part 
of  our  country  was  then  low  and  swampy ;  but  the  West, 
which  is  now  an  elevated  area  of  mountains  and  plateaus, 
was  at  that  time  largely  beneath  the  ocean. 

Then,  as  the  surface  of  the  earth  continued  to  change, 
the  ocean  retreated  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  and 
extensive  marshy  lowlands  with  lakes  of  fresh  or  brackish 
water  came  into  existence.  There  were  such  marshes  in 
the  areas  that  are  now  covered  by  New  Mexico,  Colorado, 
Wyoming,   Dakota,   and    Montana.     Westward    for    some 


244  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

distance  the  land  was  higher,  but  in  the  states  of  Wash- 
ington, Oregon,  and  California  there  were  other  marshy 
lowlands  covered  with  heavy  vegetation. 

We  know  from  what  we  have  seen  of  the  manner  in 
which  wood  decays,  that  in  the  dry,  open  air  it  does  not 
accumulate,  but  is  in  great  part  carried  away  by  the 
wind.  It  is  only  in  swamps  and  shallow  bodies  of  water 
that  the  decaying  wood  can  gather  in  beds.  From  these 
facts  we  have  a  right  to  draw  conclusions  as  to  the  former 
nature  of  the  surface  where  there  are  no  coal-beds.  There 
are  extensive  beds  of  limestone  in  the  western  United 
States  which  are  of  the  same  age  as  the  coal-beds  in  the 
east.  As  such  beds  of  limestone  could  have  formed  only 
in  the  ocean,  their  presence  throws  a  good  deal  of  light 
upon  the  geography  of  those  distant  times. 

Upon  the  Pacific  slope  the  marshes  were  not  so  exten- 
sive, nor  did  they  last  for  so  long  a  period,  as  those  in  the 
East.  Nature  seems  to  have  confined  her  strongest  efforts 
at  coal-making  to  the  country  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Perhaps  she  thought  that  the  people  of  the  West  would 
not  need  coal  if  she  gave  them  plenty  of  gold  and  silver. 

In  the  Appalachian  mountains  Nature  folded  the  strata 
and  left  them  in  such  a  position  that  the  coal  could  be 
mined  easily.  In  the  Mississippi  Valley  the  beds  were 
left  flat,  almost  in  their  original  position,  so  that  shafts 
had  to  be  sunk  to  reach  the  coal.  Upon  the  Pacific  slope 
Nature  seems  to  have  had  a  large  amount  of  trouble  in 
arranging  things  satisfactorily.  She  has  made  and  remade 
the  mountains  so  many  times,  and  folded  and  broken  the 
crust  of  the  earth  so  severely  where  the  swamps  stood, 
that  now  large  portions  of  the  coal  beds  which  once  ex- 
isted have  crumbled  and  been  washed  away  by  the  streams. 


COAL   AND    PETROLEUM 


245 


The  scanty  supply  of  coal  which  now  remains  is  in  most 
places  hard  to  find  and  difficult  to  mine. 

The  best  coal  mined  near  the  Pacific  comes  from  Van- 
couver Island.  Large  beds  of  a  younger  and  poorer  coal 
are  found  southeast  of  Fuget   Sound.      There    are  other 


■ 


Fig.  108.  —  Seams  of  Coal  enclosed  in  Sandstone,  California 

beds  in  the  Coast  ranges  of  western  Oregon,  and  a  few 
small  ones  in  the  Coast  ranges  of  California.  The  great 
interior  region  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the 
Coast  ranges  has  very  little  coal.  The  people  of  California 
have  to  import  large  quantities  of  coal.  Some  is  brought 
by  the  railroads  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  but  the 
most  comes  by  ships  from  various  parts  of  the  world,  from 
England,  Australia,  or  British  Columbia.  The  ships  bring 
the  coal  at  low  rates  and  take  away  grain  and  lumber. 


246 


THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 


Coal  is  almost  the  only  important  mineral  which  Nature 
has  bestowed  sparingly  upon  the  Pacific  slope.  In  Cali- 
fornia, however,  she  has  made  amends  by  storing  up  large 
quantities  of  petroleum.  In  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  there 
is  petroleum  as  well  as  coal.  Oil  has  also  been  discovered 
in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  and  in  Texas. 


Fig.  109.  —  A  Spring  of  Water  and  Petroleum 
The  black  streak  is  petroleum 


Petroleum  is  found  flowing  from  the  rocks  in  the  form 
of  springs,  either  by  itself  or  associated  with  gases  and 
strong-smelling  mineral  water.  The  oil  is  usually  obtained 
by  boring  wells,  but  in  southern  California  there  is  one 
mountain  range  which  furnishes  large  quantities  through 
tunnels  which  have  been  run  into  its  side.  Petroleum  is  com- 
monly found  in  porous  sandstones  or  shales,  from  one  or  two 
hundred  to  three  thousand  feet  below  the  surface.     It  was 


COAL   AND   PETROLEUM 


247 


not  made  in  these  rocks,  but  has  soaked  into  them  just  as 
water  soaks  into  a  brick.  The  rocks  which  produced  the  oil 
or  petroleum  are  dark,  strong-smelling  shales  or  limestone. 
Heat  a  piece  of  such  rock,  and  you  will  drive  out  a  little  oil. 
Examine  a  piece  of  the  shale  from  one  of  the  oil  dis- 
tricts of  California,  and  you  will  discover  that  it  is  a  very 


Fig.  1 10. — Oil  Wells  in  the  City  of  Los  Angeles,  California 
Pool  of  oil  in  foreground 

peculiar  rock,  for  it  is  made  up  almost  wholly  of  minute 
organisms  which  once  inhabited  the  ocean.  Among  the 
forms  which  you  will  find  are  the  silicious  skeletons  of 
diatoms,  the  calcareous  skeletons  of  foraminifera,  scales  of 
fish,  and,  rarely,  the  whole  skeleton  of  a  fish. 

Where  now  there  are  mountains  and  valleys  dotted  with 
oil  derricks,  there  was  once  the  water  of  the  open  ocean. 


248  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

This  water  was  filled,  as  the  water  of  the  ocean  is  to-day, 
with  an  infinite  number  of  living  things.  As  these  creatures 
died,  their  bodies  sank  to  the  bottom,  and  while  the  soft 
parts  dissolved,  the  hard  parts  or  skeletons  remained. 
Through  perhaps  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years,  the 
skeletons  continued  to  accumulate  until  beds  were  formed 
hundreds  or  even  thousands  of  feet  in  thickness.  The 
materials  of  the  beds,  at  first  a  soft  mass  like  the  ooze 
which  the  dredger  brings  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  pres- 
ent ocean,  became  packed  together  in  a  solid  mass. 

Then  disturbances  affected  this  old  sea  bottom.  It  was 
raised,  and  gravel,  clay,  and  sand  from  some  new  shore 
were  washed  over  the  bed  of  animal  remains,  burying  it 
deeply.  Continued  movements  of  the  earth  finally  folded 
these  rocks,  which,  as  they  were  squeezed  and  broken, 
became  warm.  The  heat  and  pressure  started  chemical 
action  in  the  decayed  animal  bodies,  and  particles  of 
organic  matter  were  driven  off  in  the  form  of  oil  and  gas. 
These  substances  were  forced  here  and  there  through  the 
fissures  in  the  rocks.  Part  of  the  products  found  a  way  to 
the  surface  and  formed  springs,  while  other  portions  col- 
lected to  form  vast  reservoirs  in  such  porous  rocks  as  sand- 
stone. The  sulphur  and  mineral  springs  which  occur  in 
oil  regions  tell  us  that  this  work  of  oil-making  is  still 
going  on. 

The  oil  as  it  comes  from  the  ground  is  usually  brownish 
or  greenish  in  color,  and  much  thicker  than  the  refined 
product  which  we  use  in  our  lamps.  Some  of  the  crude 
petroleum  is  thick  and  tar-like  in  appearance,  and  when 
long  exposed  to  the  air  turns  to  a  solid  black  mass  called 
"  asphaltum."  This,  when  softened  by  heat  and  mixed  with 
sand,  makes  a  valuable  material  for  street  pavement. 


THE   CLIMATE   OF   THE   PACIFIC    SLOPE 

The  western  portion  of  the  United  States  exhibits  very 
interesting  climatic  features.  In  California,  for  example, 
there  may  be  found  every  degree  of  temperature  between 
tropic  heat  and  arctic  cold.  In  the  deserts  of  the  south- 
eastern portion  of  the  state  the  air  is  extremely  dry,  while 
in  the  northwest  it  rains  nearly  every  month  in  the  year. 

Upon  the  borders  of  Puget  Sound  the  thermometer 
seldom  falls  below  the  freezing-point,  while  southern  New- 
foundland, in  the  same  latitude,  is  marked  by  cold  and 
snowy  weather  for  at  least  six  months  of  every  year. 
Southern  California  has  the  same  latitude  as  central 
Georgia,  but  its  average  temperature  near  the  coast  is  but 
little  higher  than  that  of  Puget  Sound,  while  it  is  warmer 
in  winter  and  cooler  in  summer  than  Georgia.  The 
deserts  of  southern  California  and  Arizona  are  so  hot  that 
for  four  months  of  the  year  work  in  the  sun  is  almost 
impossible ;  yet  the  higher  portions  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains,  but  a  short  distance  away,  have  an  arctic 
climate.  The  whole  Pacific  coast  region  has,  with  the 
exception  of  the  mountains,  a  much  milder  climate  than 
one  would  expect  from  a  mere  knowledge  of  its  latitude. 
It  will  be  instructive  to  search  out  the  reasons  for  the 
remarkable  contrasts  in  climate  presented  by  different 
portions  of  the  slope. 

The  imaginary  lines  passing  through  points  of  equal 
temperature  upon  the  earth  are  called  "  isotherms."     These 

249 


250 


THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 


lines  rarely  accord  in  direction  with  the  parallels  of  lati- 
tude, but  curve  far  to  the  north  or  south.  The  irregular 
course  of  the  isotherms  is  due  to  many  causes.  Among 
these  are  the  distribution  of  the  land  and  water,  the  direc- 
tion of  the  prevailing  wind,  the  position  of  the  mountain 
ranges,  and  the  elevation  above  sea-level. 

In  winter  the  isotherms  curve  far  to  the  north  over  the 
North  Pacific  and  North  Atlantic  oceans ;  but  over  the 
intervening  land   they  curve   as  much   to  the  south.     In 


Weather  Maps 


Fair  weather  over  central  portion  of 
Pacific  slope.  Storm  coming  in 
upon  coast  of  Washington 


Stormy  weather  over  the  western  half 
of  the  United  States 


summer  the  isotherms  are  almost  reversed  in  position,  at 
least  as  far  as  the  land  is  concerned,  for  they  bend  to  the 
north  in  the  heart  of  the  continent.  There  are  important 
reasons  for  the  slight  variation  of  the  isothermal  lines  upon 
the  western  borders  of  North  America  and  Europe,  and 
their  great  change  of  position  in  the  interior  from  winter 
to  summer,  but  these  reasons  are  not  at  all  difficult  to 
understand. 

The  temperature  of  large  bodies  of  water  changes  but 


THE   CLIMATE   OF   THE    PACIFIC    SLOPE  25 1 

little  throughout  the  year,  for  water  warms  and  cools 
slowly.  The  surface  of  the  land,  on  the  contrary,  heats 
rapidly,  and  then  as  quickly  loses  its  heat  with  the  chang- 
ing season.  The  air  over  the  ocean  is  cooler  in  summer 
and  warmer  in  winter  because  of  the  influence  of  the 
water,  but  over  the  land,  in  districts  far  from  a  large  body 
of  water,  the  changes  in  temperature  between  day  and 
night,  summer  and  winter,  are  very  great. 

It  was  formerly  thought  that  the  warm  Japan  current, 
which  flows  against  the  western  shore  of  North  America, 
was  responsible  for  the  exceptionally  mild  climate  there, 
and  that  the  Gulf  Stream  produced  a  similar  climate  upon 
the  coast  of  western  Europe.  More  careful  study,  how- 
ever, has  shown  that  not  the  warm  ocean  currents,  but 
rather  the  winds  blowing  from  the  water,  are  the  cause 
of  the  mild  climate  in  those  lands  across  which  they 
blow.  In  temperate  latitudes  there  is  a  slow  movement  of 
the  air  in  an  easterly  direction,  and  in  consequence  the 
climate  of  the  western  coast  of  North  America  is  not 
marked  by  such  extremes  in  winter  and  summer  as  are 
the  interior  and  the  eastern  sections.  It  is  also  surprising 
to  find  how  nearly  alike  the  average  winter  and  summer 
temperature  is  at  San  Francisco.  It  is  also  surprising 
to  note  that  the  average  temperature  of  Seattle  differs  so 
little  from  that  of  San  Diego,  although  these  two  places 
are  separated  by  sixteen  degrees  of  latitude. 

In  some  places  the  climatic  conditions  which  we  should 
naturally  expect  seem  to  be  reversed.  Oranges  are  grown 
in  the  Great  Valley  of  California  as  far  north  as  Red  Bluff, 
and  actually  ripen  a  month  sooner  than  they  do  near  Los 
Angeles,  five  hundred  miles  farther  south.  The  early 
ripening  of  fruits  in  the  Great  Valley  may  be  explained  by 


252  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

the  presence  of  the  inclosing  mountain  ranges :  the  Sierra 
Nevada  mountains  upon  the  northeast  shut  off  the  cold 
winds  of  winter,  while  the  Coast  ranges  upon  the  west  break 
the  cool  summer  winds  which  come  from  off  the  Pacific. 

Another  interesting  fact  connected  with  the  climate  of 
the  West  is  the  influence  exerted  by  the  direction  of  the 
mountain  ranges.  As  these  ranges  usually  lie  across  the 
path  of  the  prevailing  winds,  their  tempering  influence  is 
lost  much  more  quickly  than  it  otherwise  would  be.  West 
of  the  Coast  ranges  the  summers  are  cool  and  the  winters 
are  warm.  Upon  the  eastern  side  of  these  mountains  the 
winters  are  somewhat  cooler  and  the  summers  very  much 
warmer.  In  the  dry,  clear  air  of  the  desert  valleys,  far 
from  the  ocean,  the  daily  range  in  temperature  is  some- 
times as  great  as  fifty  degrees,  while  the  winters  are  cool 
and  the  summers  unbearably  hot. 

We  all  know  how  much  cooler  a  hill-top  is  than  a  valley 
upon  a  summer  day.  Where  the  mountains  rise  abruptly 
to  a  great  height,  as,  for  example,  does  the  San  Bernardino 
Range  of  southern  California,  one  can  stand  among  stunted 
plants  of  an  arctic  climate  and  look  down  upon  orange 
orchards  where  frost  rarely  forms.  Mount  Tamalpais,  a 
peak  of  the  Coast  Range  north  of  San  Francisco,  has  an 
elevation  of  nearly  three  thousand  feet.  The  summer  tem- 
perature upon  this  mountain  forms  an  exception  to  the 
general  rule,  for  while  the  lowlands  are  buried  in  chilling 
fog,  the  air  upon  the  summit  is  warm  and  pleasant. 

The  north  and  south  mountain  ranges  not  only  make 
the  interior  hotter  than  it  would  otherwise  be,  but  rob  it  of 
much  of  the  moisture  which  it  should  receive.  The  winter 
storms  coming  in  from  the  ocean  find  the  cool  mountains 
lying  across  their  path  and  quickly  part  with  a  large  pro- 


THE   CLIMATE   OF   THE   PACIFIC   SLOPE 


253 


portion  of  their  moisture.  Where  the  coast  mountains  are 
low,  as  is  the  case  with  a  great  part  of  California  and 
of  Oregon,  more  of  the  moisture  passes  on  to  the  next 
line  of  mountains,  the  Sierra  Nevada-Cascade  Range,  the 
western  slope  of  which  is  well  watered. 


In  the  region  of 


■■■HBX    >   #Ta    -  HK 

Fig.  hi.  —  Orange  Orchards  close  under  Snow-capped  Peaks 
Highlands,  California 

the  Columbia  the  Cascade  Range  is  also  low,  and  the  storms, 
which  often  follow  one  another  in  quick  succession,  sweep 
across  the  Columbia  plateau  and  over  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. Farther  south,  not  only  are  the  storms  fewer  in 
number,  but  the  mountains  are  very  much  higher,  so  that 
the  desert  basins  of  the  lower  Colorado  and  Death  Valley 
region  are  extremely  dry.  One  can  in  imagination  stand 
upon  the  summit  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  and 
upon  the  one  hand  look  down  upon  barren  valleys  of  vast 


254  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

extent,  broken  by  mountains  almost  as  barren,  where  noth- 
ing can  be  grown  except  by  means  of  irrigation ;  and  upon 
the  other  side,  toward  the  coast,  see  a  country  plentifully 
visited  by  rain,  and  either  covered  with  forests  or  given 
over  to  farming  and  fruit-raising. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  form  the  eastern  barrier  which 
the  storms  encounter.  Their  summits  are  very  high  and 
are  covered  with  deep  snow  during  the  winter.  East  of 
these  mountains  lie  the  Great  Plains,  where  the  precipita- 
tion is  light  until  we  go  far  enough  toward  the  Mississippi 
Valley  to  reach  the  influence  of  the  moist  air  currents 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Many  storms  originate  over  the 
region  of  the  Gulf  of  California,  particularly  in  the  late 
summer,  and  supplement  to  some  extent  the  light  winter 
storms  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 

The  storms  of  which  we  have  been  speaking  are  known 
as  cyclones.  This  term  does  not  refer  to  the  local  storms 
which  occur  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  are  frequently 
so  destructive,  but  to  great  disturbances  of  the  air. 
Sometimes  the  column  of  whirling  air  is  more  than  a 
thousand  miles  in  diameter.  The  air  in  a  cyclone  is 
circling  and  at  the  same  time  rising,  so  that  the  motion  is 
spiral.  If  you  will  study  an  eddy  in  a  stream  of  water,  you 
will  get  an  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  motion,  except  that 
in  the  case  of  the  water  eddy  the  movement  is  downward. 
The  motion  of  the  particles  in  the  dust-whirls  which  all 
have  seen  moving  across  the  fields  near  noon  on  warm 
summer  days  illustrate  the  movement  of  the  air  in  one  of 
these  great  storms.  The  direction  of  the  air  in  a  cyclone 
is  opposite  to  that  of  the  hands  of  a  clock. 

When  the  wind  comes  up  from  a  southerly  point,  when 
high,  thin  clouds,  gradually  growing  thicker,  spread  over 


THE   CLIMATE   OF   THE   PACIFIC   SLOPE  255 

the  sky,  and  the  barometer  begins  to  fall,  then  it  is  known 
that  a  storm  is  coming.  If  one  will  learn  to  watch  the 
clouds  and  the  winds  carefully  he  may  become  able  to 
predict  a  storm  with  almost  as  much  certainty  as  if  he 
had  a  barometer.  This  instrument  registers  the  pressure 
of  the  air,  which  is  always  less  within  the  area  of  a  storm, 
because  then  the  air  is  rising,  So  when  the  barometer 
falls  we  may  always  know  that  a  storm  is  approaching. 

The  greater  number  of  the  storms  which  occur  in  the 
central  and  northern  United  States  come  in  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean  in  the  latitude  of  Washington.  Continuing  east 
or  southeast  they  reach  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  then 
turn  northeastward  toward  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley.  In 
the  summer  months  there  are  few  storms,  and  they  very 
rarely  reach  as  far  south  as  California.  As  winter 
approaches  the  storms  become  more  frequent  and  severe, 
and  move  farther  and  farther  south  until  the  whole  land 
as  far  as  Mexico  receives  a  wetting. 

Upon  the  Pacific  coast  there  is  often  very  little  warning 
of  the  coming  of  a  storm,  but  in  the  Middle  and  Eastern 
States  they  may  frequently  be  predicted  several  days  in 
advance.  With  the  passing  of  one  of  these  storms  the 
temperature  falls  rapidly,  and  this  lowering  of  tempera- 
ture, together  with  the  fierce  wind,  gives  rise  upon  the 
Great  Plains  to  "blizzards"  or  "northers."  These  storms 
endanger  the  lives  of  both  men  and  animals. 

At  different  times  in  the  year,  particularly  in  winter, 
spring,  and  early  summer,  warm,  dry  winds  occur.  Those 
winds  which  sweep  down  from  the  heights  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  quickly  melt  the  snows  are  known  as 
"  chinooks."  The  hot  north  and  east  winds  of  California 
often  do  great  damage  to  growing  crops. 


256  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

Now  let  us  sum  up  briefly  the  factors  which  have  to- 
gether produced  the  climatic  features  of  the  Pacific  slope. 

(1)  Ordinarily  the  factor  of  the  greatest  importance  is 
latitude.  We  should  expect  that  Seattle  would  have  a 
much  colder  climate  than  San  Diego  because  it  receives 
the  sun's  rays  more  slantingly. 

(2)  The  influence  of  latitude  is  greatly  modified  by  the 
temperate  winds  blowing  from  the  Pacific,  so  that  places 
far  separated  in  latitude  differ  but  little  in  average  tem- 
perature, their  summers  being  cooler  and  their  winters 
warmer  than  we  should  expect  them  to  be. 

(3)  The  storms  pass  over  the  land  with  the  general 
easterly  movement  of  the  air.  The  largest  number  pass 
east  across  the  northern  portion  of  the  United  States. 
The  farther  south  we  go  the  fewer  are  the  storms  and 
the  less  the  rainfall.  Along  the  coast  of  Washington  the 
annual  rainfall  is  nearly  one  hundred  inches.  At  San 
Diego  it  is  only  about  ten  inches. 

(4)  The  position  of  the  mountain  ranges  causes  the 
influence  of  the  ocean  on  the  air  to  be  lost  within  a  short 
distance  toward  the  interior  of  the  continent,  so  that  the 
extremes  of  temperature  rapidly  become  greater.  The 
position  of  the  mountains  also  affects  the  rainfall  of  the 
interior.  Since  a  large  proportion  of  the  moisture  is  con- 
densed upon  their  ocean  slopes,  the  climate  of  each  suc- 
ceeding range  toward  the  interior  becomes  more  dry  and 
desert-like.  While  in  some  of  the  lowlands  thus  cut  off 
from  the  ocean  the  climate  is  extremely  arid,  yet  the  coun- 
try is  relieved  from  utter  barrenness  through  the  presence 
of  mountain  peaks  and  ranges,  which  often  condense  con- 
siderable moisture. 

(5)  The   higher  a  region  is  above  the  sea,  the    coldei 


Fig.  ii2.— Scene  in  Forests  of  Washington 

Showing  spruce  and  cedar 


258  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

the  climate.  The  summit  of  a  high  mountain  and  the 
valley  at  its  base  may  be  in  the  same  latitude,  and  yet 
one  may  possess  an  arctic  climate  while  the  other  has  a 
sub-tropical  one. 

The  heavy  rainfall  in  western  Washington,  Oregon,  and 
northern  California  results  in  dense  forests.  To  the  south, 
the  rainfall  upon  the  lowlands  is  not  sufficient  to  produce 
forests,  but  as  it  is  greater  upon  the  mountains,  trees 
thrive  upon  their  sides.  The  elevation  at  which  trees  will 
grow  becomes  higher  and  higher  as  we  go  into  the  more 
desert  regions,  until  in  northern  Arizona  it  is  found  to  be 
above  six  thousand  feet.  The  high  plateaus  are  generally 
treeless,  but  are  covered  with  such  shrubs  as  greasewood 
and  sage-brush. 

We  see  now  that  our  climate  is  the  product  of  many 
factors.  It  frequently  varies  greatly  in  places  only  a  few 
miles  distant  from  each  other.  Consequently  there  may 
be  a  great  variety  of  productions  and  industries  in  one 
small  area,  while  in  other  regions  the  climate  and  produc- 
tions are  almost  unchanged  for  hundreds  of  miles. 


SOMETHING   ABOUT    IRRIGATION 

Travellers  from  the  Eastern  States  who  visit  New 
Mexico  for  the  first  time  are  attracted  by  many  unusual 
sights.  There  are  the  interesting  little  donkeys,  the  low 
adobe  houses  of  the  native  Mexicans,  and  the  water  ditcnes 
winding  through  the  gardens  and  fields,  which  are  divided 
into  squares  by  low  ridges  of  earth. 

If  the  fields  are  seen  in  the  winter  time,  when  dry  and 
barren,  the  meaning  of  their  checkered  appearance  is  not 
at  first  clear,  but  in  the  spring  and  summer  one  is  not  long 
in  finding  out  all  about  them.  When  the  time  comes  to 
sow  the  seed,  water  is  turned  into  these  squares  from 
the  ditches  which  traverse  the  valleys,  and  one  square 
at  a  time  is  filled  until  the  ground  in  each  is  thoroughly 
soaked.  Afterward,  when  the  ground  has  dried  enough 
to  be  easily  worked,  the  crop  is  put  in.  The  seeds  soon 
sprout  under  the  influence  of  the  warm  sun,  and  the  land 
becomes  green,  with  growing  plants.  The  same  method 
of  moistening  the  ground  is  used  for  the  orchards  and 
vineyards. 

What  is  the  use  of  all  this  work  ?    Whv  not  wait  for  the 

J 

rains  to  come  and  wet  the  earth,  as  the  farmer  does  in  the 
eastern  United  States  ?  The  Mexicans,  who  have  tilled 
these  valleys  for  more  than  two  hundred  years,  ought  cer- 
tainly to  have  learned  in  all  that  time  how  to  get  the  best 
returns.  You  may  be  sure  that  they  would  not  water  the 
ground  in  this  way  if  it  were  not  necessary.     The  fact  is, 

259 


260  THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 

that  over  a  large  portion  of  the  western  half  of  the  United 
States  it  does  not  rain  enough  to  enable  the  farmer  to 
grow  his  crops.  The  climate  is  generally  very  different 
from  that  of  the  Middle  and  Eastern  States. 

When  the  Mexicans  moved  northward  into  the  valley  of 
the  Rio  Grande  River,  into  Arizona  and  California,  they 
found  a  climate  similar  in  many  respects  to  that  at  home, 
and  soon  learned  that  it  was  necessary  to  water  the  land 
artificially  in  order  to  make  it  productive.  Though  in 
many  places  sufficient  rain  fell,  yet  the  heaviest  rainfall 
came  in  the  late  summer  or  winter,  when  the  plants  needed 
it  less,  while  the  spring  and  summer  were  long  and  dry. 
The  Mexicans  were  not  the  first  to  practise  watering  the 
land,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  ruins  of  ancient  ditches 
constructed  by  the  primitive  Indian  inhabitants.  It  is 
evident  that  they  too  made  use  of  water  in  this  manner 
for  the  growing  of  their  corn  and  squashes. 

This  turning  of  water  upon  the  land  to  make  it  produc- 
tive is  termed  "  irrigation."  The  work  is  performed  in  dif- 
ferent ways,  as  we  shall  see  later.  Irrigation  is  now  carried 
on  through  all  portions  of  the  United  States  where  the 
rainfall  is  light  and  streams  of  water  are  available. 

To  one  who  has  lived  in  a  country  where  there  is  plenty 
of  rain,  it  seems  to  involve  a  great  deal  of  work  to  prepare 
the  land  and  to  conduct  water  to  it.  One  may  feel  pity 
for  the  farmer  who  has  to  support  himself  in  this  manner 
in  so  barren  a  country.  I  am  sure,  however,  that  if  any  such 
person  will  stop  to  think,  he  will  remember  times  when  in 
his  own  fertile  home  the  expected  rain  did  not  come,  and 
the  vegetation  wilted  and  dried  up.  He  may  have  be- 
come discouraged  because  of  a  number  of  "  dry  years," 
but    probably   never    thought  that    he    had    the  means  at 


SOMETHING   ABOUT   IRRIGATION 


261 


hand  to  make  up,  at  least  in  part,  for  the  shortcomings 
of  Nature,  in  sending  too  much  rain  one  year,  and  another 
year  too  little. 

It  would  doubtless  have  paid  such  a  farmer  many  fold 
to   have   been  prepared  at  the  coming   of  a  dry  year  to 


Fig.  113.  —  Water-wheel  for  lifting  Water  for  Irrigation, 
Virgin  River,  Southern  Utah 

turn  the  water  from  a  neighboring  stream  over  his  lands. 
This  process  would  have  involved  a  good  deal  of  labor  ; 
but  how  the  plants  would  have  rejoiced,  and  how  abun- 
dantly they  would  have  repaid  him  for  the  extra  trouble ! 

The  showers  come  without  regard  to  the  time  when 
growing  things  need  them  most,  but  with  irrigation  the 
crops  are  independent  of  the  weather.  The  farmer  may 
be  sure  that,  if  he  prepares  the  ground  properly  and  sows 
the  seed,  the  returns  will  be  all  that  he  can  wish.    In  many 


262 


THE   WESTERN    UNITED    STATES 


localities  several  crops  may  be  raised  in  a  year  by  this 
method  where  otherwise  only  one  would  grow. 

Now  let  us  see  how  the  water  is  taken  from  the  streams 
and  what  are  the  different  methods  employed  to  distribute 
it  over  the  land.  Almost  every  valley  is  traversed  by  a 
stream,  great  or  small.     It  may  be  a  river,  with  a  large 


Fig.  114.  —  Garden  Irrigation,  Las  Cruces,  New  Mexico 

volume   of   water,  or  a   creek  which  completely  dries  up 
during  the.  long,  rainless  summers  of  the  West. 

In  rare  cases  the  stream  may  flow  upon  a  built-up  chan- 
nel which  is  as  high  as  the  valley,  but  usually  it  is  sunken 
below  the  level  of  the  floor  of  the  valley,  and  enclosed  by 
banks  of  greater  or  less  height.  How  is  the  water  to  be 
sent  over  the  land  ?  Where  the  current  is  swift  you  may 
sometimes  see  a  slowly  turning  water-wheel,  having  at  the 
ends  of  the  spokes  little  cups,  which  dip  up  the  water  as 


SOMETHING   ABOUT    IRRIGATION 


263 


the  wheel  revolves  and  pour  it  into  a  flume  that  runs  back 
over  the  land.  At  some  places  engines  are  used  to  pump 
the  water  from  the  stream  and  lift  it  to  the  desired  height. 
Generally,  however,  another  method  is  employed :  the 
water  is  taken  out  of  the  stream  in  an  artificial  channel 
dug  in  the  earth.     But  in  order  to  get  the  water  at  a  suffi- 


Fig.  115.  —  Irrigating  an  Alfalfa  Field,  Arizona 

cient  height  to  make  it  flow  over  the  fields,  it  is  necessary 
to  start  a  ditch  or  canal  at  a  favorable  point  some  distance 
up  the  stream,  perhaps  miles  from  the  garden. 

The  ditch  is  made  with  a  slope  just  sufficient  for  the 
water  to  flow.  The  slope  must  be  less  than  that  of  the  river 
from  which  the  water  is  taken,  so  as  to  carry  the  stream, 
at  last,  high  enough  to  cover  the  lands  to  be  irrigated. 

Visit  almost  any  valley  in  the  West  where  agriculture 
or  fruit-growing  is  being  carried  on,  and  you  will  at  once 


264  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

notice  the  lines  of  the  ditches,  apparently  level,  as  they 
wind  around  the  hillsides.  At  convenient  distances  there 
are  gates  to  let  out  the  water  for  the  orchards  and  fields. 

The  ground  may  be  moistened  in  different  ways.  The 
first  method  is  that  employed  by  the  Mexicans,  who,  if  we 
except  the  Cliff  Dwellers,  were  the  first  to  introduce  irriga- 
tion into  our  country.  This  consists  in  dividing  the  land  into 
squares  by  embankments  and  allowing  the  water  to  flood  each 
in  succession.  The  method  is  known  as  irrigation  by  checks, 
and  can  be  used  conveniently  only  upon  nearly  level  land. 

In  many  orchards  a  series  of  shallow  furrows  is  ploughed 
between  the  rows  of  trees,  and  the  water  is  allowed  to  flow 
down  these  until  the  soil  is  thoroughly  soaked.  In  alfalfa 
fields  the  water  is  often  turned  upon  the  upper  end  and 
permitted  to  work  its  way  across  until  it  reaches  the  lower 
edge,  soaking  the  ground  as  it  goes.  The  slopes  must  in 
every  case  be  so  gentle  that  the  current  will  not  be  strong 
enough  to  carry  away  the  soil. 

Once  in  every  two  to  four  weeks  throughout  the  spring 
and  summer,  the  exact  period  depending  upon  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  ground  dries,  the  wetting  is  repeated.  If 
the  soil  is  light  the  water  must  be  turned  on  more  often 
and  a  larger  supply  is  required. 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  stream  from  which  the 
water  is  taken  so  nearly  dries  up  in  the  summer,  when  the 
water  is  most  needed,  that  the  cultivated  lands  suffer 
severely.  During  the  winter  little  if  any  irrigation  is 
necessary,  but  at  that  time  the  streams  are  so  full  that 
they  frequently  run  over  their  banks  and  do  great  damage. 

How  to  preserve  the  water  thus  going  to  waste  and  have 
it  at  hand  for  summer  use  has  been  an  important  problem 
in  regions  where  every  particle  of  water  is  valuable.     Study 


SOMETHING   ABOUT   IRRIGATION 


265 


of  the  question  has  led  to  the  examination  of  the  streams 
with  reference  to  the  building  of  reservoirs  to  hold  back 
the  flood  waters.  A  reservoir  may  be  formed  of  a  natural 
lake  in  the  mountains  in  which  the  stream  rises,  by  placing 
a  dam  across  its  outlet  and  so  making  it  hold  more  water. 


Fig.  116.  —  Sweetwater  Reservoir,  near  San  Diego,  California 

If  this  cannot  be  done,  a  narrow  place  in  the  canon  of  the 
stream  is  selected,  above  which  there  is  a  broad  valley. 
At  such  a  place  the  dam  which  is  built  across  the  canon 
is  held  firmly  in  place  by  the  walls  of  rock  upon  each  side, 
and  an  artificial  lake  or  reservoir  is  made.  Ditches  lead 
away  from  this  reservoir,  and  by  means  of  gates  the  water 
is  supplied  when  and  where  it  is  needed. 

The  streams  which  furnish  the  water  for  irrigation  in 
the  arid  region  rise  in  mountains  with  steep  rocky  slopes, 


266  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

and  until  the  water  issues  from  these  mountains  it  is  con- 
fined to  canons  with  bottoms  of  solid  rock,  so  that  no  water 
is  lost  except  by  evaporation. 

After  the  streams  emerge  from  the  canons  upon  the 
long,  gentle  slopes  of  gravel  and  soil  which  lie  all  about 
the  bases  of  the  mountains,  they  begin  immediately  to 
sink  into  the  porous  material.  They  frequently  disappear 
entirely  before  they  have  flowed  many  miles.  Some  of 
this  water  can  be  brought  to  the  surface  again  by  digging 
wells  and  constructing  pumping  plants,  but  the  greater 
part  is  lost  to  the  thirsty  land. 

To  prevent  the  water  from  sinking  into  the  gravel, 
ditches  lined  with  cement  are  often  made  to  carry  it  from 
the  canons  to  the  points  where  it  is  needed.  Sometimes 
iron  pipes  or  wooden  flumes  are  used  in  place  of  the 
ditches. 

What  a  transformation  irrigation  makes  in  the  dry  and 
desert-like  valleys  of  the  West !  Land  which  under  Na- 
ture's treatment  supports  only  a  scanty  growth  of  sage- 
brush or  greasewood,  and  over  which  a  few  half-starved 
cattle  have  roamed,  becomes,  when  irrigated,  covered  with 
green  fields  and  neat  homes,  while  sleek,  well-fed  herds 
graze  upon  the  rich  alfalfa.  Ten  acres  of  irrigated  land 
will  in  many  places  support  a  family,  where  without  irri- 
gation a  square  mile  would  not  have  sufficed. 

One  might  suppose  that  the  soil  of  these  naturally  barren 
valleys  was  poor,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  The  ground 
did  not  lack  plant  food,  but  merely  the  water  to  make  this 
food  available.  With  plenty  of  water  the  most  luxuriant 
vegetation  is  produced.  The  soil  is,  indeed,  frequently 
richer  than  in  well-watered  regions,  for  a  lavish  supply  of 
water  carries  away  a  portion  of  the  plant  food. 


SOMETHING    ABOUT    IRRIGATION 


267 


In  some  places,  where  the  land  is  almost  level  and  the 
soil  is  filled  with  large  quantities  of  soluble  materials,  such 
as  soda  and  salt,  keeping  the  ground  moist  through  irriga- 
tion brings  these  substances  to  the  surface  in  such  quanti- 
ties as  to  injure  and  sometimes  kill  the  vegetation.  In 
order  that  such  lands  may  be  successfully  cultivated,  the 
salts  have  to  be  either  neutralized  or  washed  away. 


Fig.  117.  —  Irrigating  Ditch,  near  Pikenix,  aki 


Many  of  the  rivers  of  the  West  carry  large  quantities  of 
silt  in  suspension,  which  fills  the  ditches  and  causes  a  great 
deal  of  trouble ;  but  when  the  silt  is  deposited  over  the 
surface  it  adds  continually  to  the  richness  of  the  land. 

The  full  development  of  irrigation  will  mean  a  great 
increase  in  the  population  and  wealth  of  all  the  Western 
States. 


THE   LOCATION    OF   THE   CITIES   OF   THE 
PACIFIC    SLOPE 

This  old  earth  has  to  be  consulted  upon  every  occasion. 
It  is  a  silent  partner  in  all  our  undertakings.  We  some- 
times think  that  we  come  and  go  as  we  please,  but  a  little 
thought  convinces  us  that  we  are  not  really  so  free. 

The  traveller  must  take  account  of  the  slopes  of  the  land. 
It  is  much  easier  for  him  to  follow  a  valley  and  cross  a 
mountain  range  through  a  low  spot,  although  his  course  be 
very  crooked,  than  it  is  to  make  a  "  bee  line  "  for  his  des- 
tination. The  farmer,  in  choosing  his  home  and  the  kind 
of  produce  which  he  will  raise,  has  to  consult  the  soil  and 
climate.  He  cannot  expect  to  grow  grain  where  the  soil  is 
poor  and  dry,  or  grow  apples  where  the  late  spring  frosts 
kill  the  buds.  The  miner  knows  that  he  cannot  expect  to 
find  gold  veins  in  the  valleys,  where  the  rocks  are  deeply 
covered  by  the  soil,  and  so  he  turns  his  steps  toward  the 
mountains,  where  Nature  has  made  his  work  easy  by  lifting 
up  the  rocks  and  exposing  them  to  his  view. 

Routes  of  commerce  and  trade  are  governed  by  geo- 
graphic, and  to  a  certain  extent  by  climatic,  conditions. 
Shallow  streams  with  rapids  and  waterfalls  obstruct  navi- 
gation. The  absence  of  harbors  along  a  given  coast  makes 
it  difficult  for  ships  to  take  and  discharge  cargoes.  Rail- 
roads cannot  be  constructed  unless  long  and  expensive 
surveys  have  first  been  made  to  determine  the  route  which 
Nature  has  made  the  easiest  between  two  given  points. 

2C8 


LOCATION  OF  CITIES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE      269 

The  character  of  the  climate  and  geographic  features  of 
a  given  country  determine  whether  it  shall  become  noted 
for  agricultural  productions,  mining  industries,  manufac- 
tures, or  commerce.  The  locations  of  the  cities  and  towns 
and  the  roads  connecting  them  depend  upon  geographic 
conditions.  There  is  not  an  occupation  of  any  importance 
in  which  people  engage  at  any  particular  place  that  is  not 
dependent  in  large  degree  for  its  success  upon  the  condi- 
tions which  Nature  has  imposed  upon  that  place. 

A  city  will  not  grow  up  at  a  given  point  unless  the  geo- 
graphic conditions  are  favorable.  There  must  be  some 
natural  reason  to  induce  people  to  gather  in  large  numbers 
in  one  place.  At  one  spot  there  are  facilities  for  manu- 
facturing, such  as  water-power  and  coal,  and  easy  means 
of  communication  with  other  parts  of  the  world.  At  an- 
other, the  only  reason  for  the  growth  of  a  city  is  the  exist- 
ence of  rich  mines.  A  third  place  may  be  conveniently 
located  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  agricultural  region,  where  it 
is  easy  to  bring  in  supplies  and  ship  out  the  products  of 
the  soil. 

A  study  of  the  founding  and  growth  of  some  of  the  cities 
of  the  West,  and  particularly  of  the  Pacific  slope,  will  bring 
out  many  interesting  facts. 

San  Francisco  is  the  metropolis  of  the  Pacific ;  its  popu- 
lation will  soon  reach  half  a  million.  If  we  look  back 
seventy-five  years  we  find  San  Francisco  an  unimportant 
Mexican  military  post  and  the  seat  of  one  of  the  smaller 
missions.  Monterey,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Cali- 
fornia and  one  of  the  two  leading  towns  (Los  Angeles 
being  the  other),  apparently  had  all  the  advantages  in  the 
race  for  supremacy. 

In  date  of  discovery  (1603)  Monterey  Bay  has  the  advan- 


270  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

tage  of  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  over  San 
Francisco  Bay.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  the  differ- 
ent navigators  who  sailed  north  along  the  coast  failed  to 
discover  California's  most  magnificent  bay.  Sir  Francis 
Drake  went  by  it,  evidently  not  seeing  the  narrow  opening 
between  the  headlands  now  known  as  the  Golden  Gate. 
Vizcaino,  after  discovering  Monterey  Bay,  also  passed  by 
and  anchored  where  Drake  had  stopped,  in  a  little  bay 
now  called  Drake's  Bay,  a  few  miles  north  of  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay. 

After  the  founding  of  San  Diego,  in  1769,  a  party  started 
overland  for  Monterey,  but  by  reason  of  the  peculiar  posi- 
tion of  the  bay  they  passed  it  unknowingly,  and  by  accident 
came  upon  the  body  of  water  which  has  since  been  of  so 
great  importance  to  the  commercial  life  of  California. 
Monterey  Bay  in  time  lost  its  importance,  partly  because 
it  was  not  thoroughly  protected  from  the  storms,  and  partly 
from  the  lack  of  easy  communication  with  the  rest  of  the 
state. 

Immediately  after  the  acquisition  of  California  and  the 
discovery  of  gold,  the  advantages  of  San  Francisco  Bay 
began  to  be  appreciated,  and  the  little  Mexican  town  grew 
rapidly.  The  narrow  entrance  to  the  bay,  which  had  for 
so  long  a  time  delayed  its  discovery,  completely  protected 
it  from  the  storms,  while  its  long  arms  opened  across  the 
coast  mountains  directly  into  the  important  valleys  of  the 
interior.  Ocean  vessels  could  go  up  the  bay  and  through 
the  Strait  of  Carquinez,  while  river  boats  could  be 
used  for  many  miles  farther.  After  the  discovery  of  gold, 
ships  from  all  parts  of  the  world  found  ample  room  and 
shelter  in  San  Francisco  Bay ;  and  the  incoming  miners, 
going   by  the  water   routes    to    Marysville,    Sacramento, 


LOCATION  OF  CITIES  OF  THE   PACIFIC  SLOPE      27 1 

and  Stockton,  easily  reached  the  gold-bearing  gravels  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  streams. 

With  the  exception  of  southern  California  and  a  portion 
of  the  northern  coast,  almost  all  the  agricultural  and  min- 
eral resources  of  California  are  directly  tributary  to  San 
Francisco.  This  place  is  naturally  the  centre  of  home 
trade,  of  foreign  commerce,  and  of  population. 


Fio.  118.  —  San  Francisco  Bay 
Formed  by  the  sinking  of  the  land  and  flooding  of  a  river  valley 

Nature  failed  to  supply  San  Francisco  with  one  essential 
advantage,  namely,  cheap  power  for  manufacturing.  There 
is  no  water-power  near  and  but  little  coal  in  the  state. 
Since  the  coal  has  to  be  shipped  in  from  distant  points, 
its  high  price  has  impeded  manufacturing.  But  now  it 
appears  that  San  Francisco  is  not  so  badly  off  after  all,  for 
important  deposits  of  petroleum  have  been  discovered  in 


272  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

the  central  and  southern  portions  of  California;  and  besides, 
processes  have  been  invented  for  transforming  the  unlimited 
water-power  of  the  mountain  streams  into  electric  energy, 
and  transmitting  this  power  to  all  the  cities  about  the  bay. 

The  early  Spaniards  founded  the  pueblo  of  Los  Angeles 
in  its  present  location,  because  at  this  point  the  Los  Angeles 
River  carried  an  abundance  of  pure  water  which  could  be 
led  out  in  ditches  to  irrigate  the  fertile  bottom  lands  in 
the  vicinity.  Partly  because  it  became  a  railroad  centre, 
and  partly  because  it  is  surrounded  by  rich  valleys,  Los 
Angeles  has  grown  with  great  rapidity  and  now  stands 
next  to  San  Francisco  in  size  among  California  cities. 

San  Diego,  which  has  a  harbor  next  in  importance  to 
that  of  San  Francisco,  has  grown  more  slowly,  because 
of  the  greater  difficulty  in  developing  water  systems  for 
irrigation,  and  because  access  is  not  so  easy  on  account  of 
the  enclosing  mountains.  However,  it  must  in  time  be- 
come the  second  commercial  city  of  the  state. 

Mountain  barriers  make  travel  from  one  portion  of  Cali- 
fornia to  another  somewhat  difficult.  Mountains  separate 
San  Francisco  and  the  Great  Valley  of  California  from  all 
other  portions  of  the  continent.  Nature  seems  to  have 
planned  here  a  little  empire  all  by  itself.  But  engineering 
skill  in  the  construction  of  railroads  has  overcome  the 
barrier  upon  the  north  which  separates  California  from 
Oregon.  The  Sierra  Nevada  range  upon  the  east  has 
been  crossed  at  Donner  Pass,  and  upon  the  south  an  outlet 
has  been  found  through  the  Tehachapi  Pass. 

In  the  state  of  Oregon,  the  city  of  Portland  ranks  first 
in  importance.  Why  did  not  Astoria  or  Fort  Vancouver 
develop  into  the  metropolis  of  the  Columbia  basin  ? 

Astoria,  which  was  founded  in  the  early  part  of  the  last 


LOCATION  OF  CITIES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE      273 

century,  has  a  spacious  and  well-protected  harbor,  but  it 
has  no  large  tributary  agricultural  valleys.  Moreover,  the 
greater  number  of  deep-water  ships  pass  it  by,  and  go  as 
far  up  the  Columbia  as  possible  to  take  on  their  loads  of 
grain. 

Fort  Vancouver,  on  the  site  of  the  old  Hudson  Bay 
trading  post,  is  practically  at  the  head  of  deep-water  navi- 
gation upon  the  Columbia,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  par- 
ticular reason  why  trade  should  centre  here,  and  this  town 
also  has  been  left  behind  in  the  march  of  progress. 

The  earliest  settlements  in  western  Oregon  were  made 
upon  the  Willamette  River,  which  drains  a  large  and  ex- 
tremely fertile  valley.  Near  the  point  at  which  this  river 
joins  the  Columbia,  the  city  of  Portland  sprang  up.  This 
town  occupies  an  ideal  position.  It  is  accessible  for  deep 
sea  vessels,  and  has  communication  by  river  boats  with  the 
Willamette  Valley  and  the  upper  Columbia  River. 

In  the  eighteenth  century,  when  sailors  were  looking  for 
a  passage  across  the  northern  portion  of  the  continent,  an 
opening  was  found  extending  into  the  land  between  Van- 
couver Island  and  Cape  Flattery.  It  was  at  first  thought 
that  this  was  the  desired  waterway,  but  various  navigators, 
among  them  Vancouver,  explored  the  body  of  water 
into  which  the  Strait  of  Fuca  opened,  only  to  find  that 
every  branch  and  inlet  terminated  in  the  land.  Puget 
Sound  is  nearly  enclosed  by  land  and  is  so  large  as  really 
to  form  an  inland  sea.  Its  long  arms  reach  out  in  three 
directions  among  the  most  heavily  timbered  valleys  and 
mountain  slopes  of  the  United  States. 

The  cities  of  Puget  Sound  had  a  later  start  than  most  of 
the  other  cities  of  the  Pacific  coast,  for  this  portion  of  the 
old  Oregon  territory  was  for  a  long  time  claimed  by  the 


274  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

English,  and  during  that  period  was  peopled  only  by 
Indians  and  trappers.  In  1846  the  present  boundary  was 
established,  and  Puget  Sound  passed  into  the  possession  of 
the  United  States. 

Because  of  the  dense  forests,  agriculture  could  not  play 
an  important  part  in  the  development  of  the  sound  region 
for  some  time.  Lumbering  was  naturally  the  leading  oc- 
cupation. This  industry  could  be  carried  on  all  the  more 
advantageously  because  of  the  innumerable  inlets  penetrat- 
ing the  land. 

The  advantages  of  Puget  Sound  for  foreign  commerce 
began  to  be  evident,  but  the  Cascade  Range  stood  in  the 
way  of  railroads  from  the  eastward.  Although  it  was  a 
comparatively  easy  task  to  build  a  railroad  north  from 
Portland,  yet  the  sound  region  did  not  begin  to  grow 
rapidly  until,  after  careful  surveys,  two  railroads  finally 
found  passes  through  the  Cascade  Range  so  as  to  reach 
tide-water.  As  in  other  places,  when  the  necessity  for 
overcoming  them  arose,  the  obstacles  which  Nature  had 
interposed  were  found  not  to  be  so  troublesome  as  was 
at  first  supposed.  Now  the  once  formidable  range  has 
been  tunnelled  and  will  no  longer  form  a  serious  barrier 
between  the  interior  portion  of  Washington  and  the  coast. 

Tacoma,  Seattle,  and  Everett  have  grown  up  on  the 
sound  as  important  commercial  and  manufacturing  cities, 
and  will,  on  account  of  their  favorable  situation,  receive 
their  share  of  the  commerce  of  the  Pacific.  The  cities  of 
the  sound  are  particularly  well  situated  for  intercourse  and 
commerce  with  Alaska  and  northeastern  Asia. 

These  cities  are  also  well  situated  for  manufacturing, 
because  coal  and  wood  are  plentiful  and  consequently 
cheap,  but  they  have  not  in  their  immediate  vicinity  so  ex- 


LOCATION  OF  CITIES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE      275 

tensive  agricultural  valleys  as  the  Willamette  and  the  Great 
Valley  of  California.  The  lumberman  must  be  supplanted 
by  the  farmer  and  fruit-grower  before  the  slopes  about 
Puget  Sound  can  be  fully  developed. 

The  natural  outlet  for  the  great  wheat-fields  of  central 
Washington  is  by  way  of  the  Columbia  River  to  the  ocean, 
but  the  tunnelling  of  the  Cascades  partly  diverts  their 
products  to  the  sound  region. 


Fig.  119.  —  Falls  of  Spokane  River 
Location  of  the  city  of  Spokane 

The  city  of  Spokane,  in  eastern  Washington,  clearly 
illustrates  the  control  which  physical  features  exert  upon 
the  settlements  and  industries  of  men.  The  Spokane  River, 
soon  after  issuing  from  Cceur  d'Alene  Lake,  flows  out  over 
the  volcanic  plains  of  Washington.  In  the  course  of  a 
few  miles  it  descends  into  a  shallow  canon  by  a  series  of 
cascades  and  waterfalls.     The   water-power  furnished  by 


276 


THE  WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 


these  falls  has  determined  the  position  and  growth  of 
Spokane.  The  falls  brought  sawmills  and  manufactur- 
ing plants,  and  these  in  turn  brought  people  and  rail- 
roads. The  city  has  become  a  great  commercial  centre 
for  all  the  region  round  about.     The  extensive  and  rich 


Fig.  12c 


Virginia  City,  Nevada 


Supported  entirely  by  mining 

mineral  district  upon  the  north,  extending  even  into  British 
Columbia,  finds  its  most  convenient  source  of  supplies  at 
Spokane.  East  of  the  city  is  the  Cceur  d'Alene  mining 
region,  while  south  and  west  are  large  areas  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  of  fruit  and  grain. 

The  city  of  Great  Falls,  Montana,  in  the  Missouri  River 
basin,  is  destined  to  become  a  great  industrial  centre, 
because  of  the  presence  of  unlimited  water-power  afforded 
by  the  Great  Falls  of  the  Missouri  River.  No  other 
reason  would  lead  to  the  growth  of  a  settlement  at  this 


LOCATION  OF  CITIES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE      277 

particular  spot,   for  boundless  plains  extend  about  it  in 
every  direction. 

The  mining  cities  of  the  West,  such  as  Butte,  Virginia 
City,  and  Leadville,  illustrate  the  growth  of  important 
centres  of  population  in  the  vicinity  of  large  deposits  of 


Fig.  121.  —  Butte,  Montana 
A  city  of  smelters 

minerals.  In  the  case  of  these  cities,  as  well  as  many 
others,  there  are  no  agricultural  resources  in  the  surround- 
ing country  to  support  the  people  gathered  together  here. 
Nearly  all  their  food  has  to  be  shipped  hundreds  of  miles. 
Cities  supported  by  mining  are  less  likely  to  be  permanent 
than  those  supported  by  an  agricultural  community,  by 
commerce,  or  by  manufacturing. 


THE  FOREST  BELT  OF  THE  SIERRA  NEVADA 

MOUNTAINS 

No  other  coniferous  forests  in  the  world  can  compare 
with  those  covering  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada and  Cascade  ranges.  They  are  remarkable  both  for 
the  number  of  species  and  for  the  size  of  the  trees.  The 
moderate  temperature  and  the  moist  winds  from  the 
Pacific  seem  to  offer  the  conditions  which  are  best  suited 
to  the  growth  of  cone-bearing  trees. 

As  we  go  northward  along  the  coast,  or  ascend  the 
mountain  slopes,  we  find  the  climate  growing  cooler  and 
cooler.  With  this  changing  climate  the  species  of  conifers 
change,  for  each  has  become  accustomed  to  certain  condi- 
tions of  temperature  and  moisture,  which  it  must  have  in 
order  to  thrive. 

The  Sierra  Nevada  is  the  most  continuous  lofty  range 
of  mountains  in  North  America.  From  the  great  valley 
at  its  western  base  to  the  crest  of  the  range  the  distance 
is  about  sixty  miles.  Because  of  the  great  height  of  the 
mountains,  there  is  found  within  these  few  miles  every 
variety  of  climate  between  the  sub-tropical  atmosphere  of 
the  valley,  where  oranges  ripen  to  perfection,  and  the  arctic 
cold  of  the  summits,  where  little  or  no  vegetation  can  live. 

Thus,  by  climbing  a  single  mountain  range,  we  may  experi- 
ence all  kinds  of  climate,  and  have  an  opportunity  to  observe 
the  different  forms  of  plant  life  such  as  we  could  not  other- 
wise obtain  without  a  journey  of  several  thousand  miles. 

278 


THE  FOREST   BELT  OF  THE   SIERRA  NEVADAS      279 

Passing  through  the  groves  of  valley  oak,  and  beyond  the 
orange  orchards  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  we  reach 
the  foot-hills  and  begin  to  ascend.  Several  species  of  oak 
are  found  upon  the  hillsides  and  in  the  valleys,  while 
mingled  with  them  in  many  places  appear  such  shrubs  as 


Fig.  122. —  Forest  Belt  oe  the  Foot- hills,  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 


the  California  lilac,  chamiso,  and  manzanita.  Where  the 
soil  is  too  poor  or  the  slopes  too  steep  for  the  trees,  these 
shrubs,  commonly  called  "chaparral,"  are  massed  together 
in  almost  impenetrable  thickets. 

The  first  of  the  coniferous  trees  which  we  meet  is  an 
odd-looking  one  known  as  the  digger  pine.  Instead  of 
having  a  single  straight  trunk  it  divides  a  short  distance 
above  the  ground  into  many  branches.     The  large  cones 


280 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


are  armed  with  long  hooked  spines,  so  that  they  must 
be  handled  rather  carefully,  but  when  opened  they  are 
found  to  be  filled  with  nutritious  nuts.  These  nuts  were 
an  important  source  of  food  for  the  Indians  who  once 

inhabited  the  foot-hills. 
Now  the  Indians  are 
gone,  but  the  nuts  are 
not  wasted,  if  one  may 
judge  by  the  fragments 
of  the  cones  with  which 
the  squirrels  strew  the 
ground. 

The  road  climbs  the 
foot-hills  by  many  turns 
and  windings  through 
canons  and  up  and 
down  ridges.  At  an 
elevation  of  about  two 
thousand  feet  speci- 
mens of  the  yellow  pine 
appear.  The  trees  in- 
crease in  size  and  grow 
more  closely  together  as 
we  ascend.  We  soon 
find  ourselves  in  the  edge  of  the  forest  belt  which  extends 
unbroken  northward  to  the  arctic  zone,  and  upward  to  the 
line  of  almost  perpetual  snow. 

The  yellow  pine,  so  named  from  the  color  of  the  bark, 
sometimes  attains  a  diameter  of  six  feet,  but  docs  not  form 
so  dense  forests  as  we  shall  find  higher  on  the  mountains. 
The  rays  of  the  warm  sun,  reaching  down  between  the 
trees  to   the  carpet  of  needles  and  "bear  clover,"   draw 


Fig.  123.  —  The  Digger  Pine 


THE  FOREST   BELT  OF  THE  SIERRA  NEVADAS      28 1 


out  their  spicy  fragrance.  The  yellow  pine,  although 
it  does  not  afford  as  good  a  quality  of  lumber  as  some  of 
the  other  pines,  is  one  of  our  most  important  trees  be- 
cause of  its  wide  distribution  through  nearly  all  mountains 


FIg.  124.  —  A  Yellow  Pine  Forest 

of  the  West.  It  has  a  much  wider  range  in  elevation 
than  most  trees,  one  variety  reaching  upward  nearly  to 
the  timber  line. 

After  getting  well  into  the  yellow  pine  forest,  we  soon 
come  upon  other  trees  that  contend  with  the  pines  for  a 
footing  upon  the  slopes  and  for  a  bit  of  the  sunshine. 
Among  these  the  black  oaks  deserve  special  mention,  for 
in  places  they  form  dense  groves  upon  the  ridges.     The 


282 


THE  WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 


cedars,  with  their  rich  brown  bark  and  flat,  drooping 
branches,  are  easily  recognized.  As  these  trees  grow  old 
they  become  gnarled  and  knotty  and  very  picturesque. 

We  first  meet  that  "  king  of  pines,"  the  sugar  pine,  upon 
the  more  shaded  mountain  slopes.  Although  higher  up, 
on  barren,  rocky  ridges,  this  tree  grows  to  noble  size,  yet 

it  cannot  withstand  heat 
and  dryness.  Our  atten- 
tion may  be  first  called 
to  the  sugar  pine  by  the 
slender  cones,  ten  to  fif- 
teen inches  in  length, 
which  are  scattered  over 
the  ground.  Then,  as  we 
look  up  to  see  whence 
the  cones  come,  our  eyes 
light  upon  the  smooth 
trunks,  often  over  six  feet 
in  diameter  and  reaching 
up  one  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  before  the  branches 
appear.  From  the  ends 
of  the  long,  drooping 
branches  hang  slender 
green  cones.  The  name 
of  this  pine  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  a  white  sugar  gathers  in  little  bunches 
at  the  spots  where  the  trunk  has  been  injured.  This  sugar 
is  pleasant  to  the  taste  and  somewhat  medicinal. 

The  wood  of  the  sugar  pine,  which  is  white  and  fine- 
grained, is  of  greater  value  commercially  than  that  of  any 
of  the  other  pines.     This  fact  leads  the  shake-maker  a^d 


Fig.  125.  —  Sugar  Pine 


THE  FOREST   BELT  OF  THE   SIERRA  NEVADAS      283 


Fig.  126.  — Zone  of  the  Fir  Forest,  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 


284  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

lumberman  to  seek  out  the  noble  tree  and  mark  it  for 
destruction.  The  sugar  pine,  when  once  destroyed  in  a 
given  locality,  rarely  replaces  itself,  as  it  is  crowded  out  by 
the  more  vigorous  conifers. 

Scattered  through  the  forests  of  yellow  pine,  cedar,  and 
sugar  pine  is  the  Douglas  spruce,  commonly  known  in 
the  market  as  the  Oregon  pine.  This  is  the  most  im- 
portant forest  tree  in  Oregon  and  Washington.  It  often 
grows  to  a  height  of  three  hundred  feet,  and  forms  dense 
forests  for  hundreds  of  miles  along  the  base  and  western 
slope  of  the  Cascade  Range.  In  Washington  it  is  found 
growing  down  to  the  sea-level,  but  in  the  Sierra  Nevada 
the  requisite  moisture  for  its  growth  is  not  found  much 
below  an  elevation  of  four  thousand  feet. 

As  we  go  upward  the  pines  become  fewer  and  the  firs 
and  "  Big  Trees  "  take  their  places.  The  Big  Trees  are 
found  in  scattered  groves,  at  an  elevation  of  five  thousand 
to  eight  thousand  feet,  for  a  distance  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  miles  along  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  moun- 
tains. The  Sequoia,  as  the  genus  is  called,  which  also 
includes  the  redwood  of  the  Coast  ranges,  is  in  many 
respects  the  most  remarkable  of  all  our  coniferous  trees. 

After  travelling  through  forests  made  up  of  other  trees 
of  great  size  it  is  difficult  at  first  to  appreciate  the  magni- 
tude of  the  Big  Trees.  Rising  from  a  swelling  base,  which 
is  sometimes  thirty  feet  in  diameter,  the  symmetrical  trunk 
reaches  up  and  up,  finally  terminating  in  a  top  three  hun- 
dred to  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  ground. 
Their  size,  their  reddish-brown  bark,  and  their  small  cones, 
clearly  distinguish  these  trees.  Great  holes  have  been 
burned  in  many  of  them,  and  in  the  hollows  thus  formed 
men  have  made  for  themselves  comfortable  living  rooms. 


inc.  127.— The  Big  Tree  Forest  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 


286  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

In  one  of  the  southern  groves  a  fallen  hollow  tree  has 
been  used  as  a  cabin. 

The  Big  Trees  and  redwoods  are  the  last  surviving  species 
of  a  genus  which  was  once  widely  distributed  over  the 
earth.  The  ancestry  of  the  Sequoia  can  be  traced  farther 
back  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  living  conifers.  Im- 
pressions of  cones  and  small  stems  with  needles  attached 
belonging  to  the  Sequoia  have  been  found  in  the  oldest 
rocks  of  the  Coast  ranges  of  California.  These  cones  and 
stems  were  washed  into  some  muddy  estuary  and  there 
buried,  millions  of  years  ago.  The  mud  inclosing  them 
was  compressed  and  hardened,  and  finally  changed  to 
slate.  This  was  at  last  exposed  upon  the  surface  through 
the  uplifting  of  a  mountain  range  and  the  work  of  erosion. 

Some  of  the  groves  of  the  Big  Trees  have  been  included 
in  government  parks  and  reservations,  but  others  are  being 
cut  as  rapidly  as  possible  by  the  lumbermen.  The  red- 
wood of  the  Coast  ranges  is  not  easily  killed,  for  it  sprouts 
from  the  stump,  and  will  in  the  course  of  time  form 
forests  again ;  but  the  Big  Trees  rarely  replace  themselves 
when  a  grove  has  been  cut  down.  These  trees  are  so  few 
in  number  and  of  such  remarkable  interest  that  they 
should  be  spared  the  fate  of  the  common  forest  tree. 

It  would  make  you  feel  sad  to  visit  one  of  the  groves 
and  see,  as  I  did,  a  fallen  giant,  fully  thirty  feet  in  diame- 
ter, lying  split  open  upon  the  ground.  This  tree  was  so 
large  that,  in  order  that  it  might  be  handled  at  all,  powder 
had  to  be  used  to  blast  it  in  pieces.  The  tree  was  knotty, 
and  according  to  the  lumbermen,  of  little  value,  and  might 
as  well  have  been  left.  What  excuse  is  there  for  the 
wanton  destruction  of  a  noble  tree  like  this  one  ?  It  must 
have  stood  from  five  thousand  to  six  thousand  years.     It 


THE  FOREST  BELT  OF  THE   SIERRA  NEVADAS      287 


was  a  mighty  tree  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era, 
and  was  growing,  a  strong  tree,  when  our  ancestors  were 
the  rudest  savages  in  the  wilds  of  Europe. 

But  we  must  not  remain  among  the  Big  Trees,  for  the 
forests  extend  much  farther  up  the  mountains.  The  most 
important  tree  of  the 
upper  forest  belt  is  the 
fir,  which  is  found  grow- 
ing from  five  thousand 
to  nearly  nine  thousand 
feet  above  sea-level. 
It.  is  one  of  the  most 
graceful  of  the  conifers. 
Sometimes  these  trees 
reach  a  height  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  feet 
and  form  dense  for- 
ests with  little  under- 
growth. The  branches 
make  the  soft,  fragrant 
beds  which  so  rest  and 
delight  the  tired  moun- 
tain climber.  Here  and 
there  about  the  springs 
and  at  the  heads  of  the 

streamlets  the  firs  appear  to  stand  back,  making  room  for 
green  meadows  brightened  with  a  profusion  of  flowers. 

The  tamarack,  or  lodge-pole  pine,  is  sometimes  found  at 
about  the  same  elevation  as  the  firs,  but  seems  to  prefer 
the  moist  lands  about  the  meadows  and  the  bottoms  of  the 
narrow  valleys.  This  tree  is  widely  distributed  at  high 
altitudes  all  over  our  Western  mountains. 


Fig.  128.  —  Alpine  Hemlocks 


288  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

Continuing  our  climb  toward  the  alpine  regions,  we 
reach  an  elevation  where  the  trees  begin  to  show  the 
effects  of  the  winter  storms.  The  fact  that  life  is  not  so 
easy  as  it  is  farther  down  the  slopes  is  apparent  from  the 
gnarled  and  stunted  trunks.  Here  are  the  alpine  hem- 
locks, dwarf  pines,  and  junipers. 

The  juniper  somewhat  resembles  the  cedar,  but  has  a 
short,  thick  trunk.  Near  the  timber  line  this  tree  grows 
but  a  few  feet  high  and  becomes  exceedingly  gnarled.  It 
seems  to  like  the  most  exposed  and  rocky  places,  but  in 
truth,  like  many  another  form  of  plant  life,  it  has  become 
accustomed  to  such  locations  because  it  cannot  successfully 
compete  with  other  trees  in  happier  ones. 

Most  weird  and  picturesque  of  all  are  the  dwarf  white 
pines,  growing  upon  the  extensive  mountain  shoulders  and 
ridges  at  a  height  of  ten  thousand  to  eleven  thousand  five 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  Since  an  arctic  climate  sur- 
rounds them  for  nine  months  in  the  year,  their  growth 
is  very  slow.  Their  short,  gnarled  trunks  and  branches 
are  twisted  into  all  sorts  of  fantastic  shapes.  When,  after 
struggling  with  the  cold  and  the  storms,  the  trees  at  last 
die,  they  do  not  quickly  decay  and  fall,  but  continue  to 
stand  for  many  years. 

These  trees  become  smaller  and  smaller  in  size  until 
at  the  extreme  timber  line  they  are  almost  prostrate  upon 
the  ground.  In  many  cases  they  rise  only  three  or  four 
feet,  and  have  the  appearance  of  shrubs  rather  than  trees. 
Still  above  them,  however,  there  are  rocky  slopes  and 
snow-banks  reaching  to  an  elevation  of  over  fourteen  thou- 
sand feet.  If  we  examine  these  upper  slopes  carefully  we 
shall  find  that  they  are  not  utterly  devoid  of  life,  but  that 
certain  plants  have  been  able  to  obtain  a  foothold  upon 


THE   FOREST  BELT  OF  THE  SIERRA  NEVADAS      289 


Fig.  129.  —  The  Upper  Limit  of  the  Timber 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 

them.  In  sheltered  nooks  there  are  little  shrubs  and 
lichens.  In  some  places  among  the  rocks,  beneath  over- 
hanging snow-banks,  beautiful  flowers  spring  up  at  the 
coming  of  the  late  summer,  blossom,  mature  their  seeds, 
and  die  with  the  return  of  the  winter  cold. 

The  magnificent  forests  through  which  we  have  passed 
in  our  long  climb,  if  destroyed  by  the  lumberman,  cannot 
be  replaced  for  hundreds  of  years.  They  contribute  much 
to  the  glory  of  the  mountains.  They  hold  back  the  water 
so  that  it  does  not  run  off  rapidly,  and  thus  aid  in  giving 
rise  to  innumerable  clear,  cold  springs.  The  springs  help 
feed  the  streams  during  the  long,  dry  summers,  when  the 
water  is  so  sorely  needed  in  the  hot  valleys  below. 


THE    NATIONAL    PARKS   AND    FOREST 
RESERVES 

The  people  who  first  pushed  into  the  unknown  country 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  in  the  earlier  half  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, were  chiefly  hunters  and  trappers.  They  did  not 
intend  to  make  permanent  homes  in  the  wilds,  but  rather 
to  stay  only  so  long  as  they  could  secure  an  abundance  of 
fur-bearing  animals. 

Then  came  the  discovery  of  the  precious  metals,  and 
thousands  of  gold-seekers  crossed  the  plains,  and  spread 
out  over  the  mountains  of  the  Cordilleran  region.  They, 
too,  expected  to  get  rich  by  making  use  of  the  resources  of 
the  country,  and  return  to  their  homes  in  the  East. 

At  the  present  time  the  destruction  of  our  forests  and  seri- 
ous injury  to  the  water  supply  has  been  threatened  through 
the  organization  of  large  lumber  companies.  Those  inter- 
ested in  lumbering  usually  live  far  removed  from  the  scenes 
of  their  operations,  and  consequently  care  little  about  the 
condition  in  which  the  deforested  lands  are  left. 

The  farmers  were  the  first  permanent  occupants  of  the 
West.  Unlike  the  wandering  trappers  and  miners,  they 
established  homes  and  made  the  land  richer  instead  of 
poorer.  As  long  as  the  population  was  scanty  there  was 
not  much  danger  of  exterminating  the  wild  animals,  and 
the  demands  for  timber  were  small. 

Our  forefathers  who  settled  the  Eastern  states  had  to 
contend  with  the  forests.     Nearly  every  acre  of  ground 

290 


NATIONAL    PARKS    AND   FOREST   RESERVES      29 1 

had  to  be  laboriously  cleared  before  anything  could  be 
planted.  It  was  only  natural  that  they  should  come  to 
regard  the  forests  as  a  hindrance  rather  than  a  blessing. 

As  the  settlers  spread  westward  to  the  prairies  and 
plains  they  came  upon  a  region  almost  destitute  of  forests  ; 
but  still  farther,  in  the  mountains  of  the  continental  divide 
and  the  Pacific  slope,  they  again  found  extensive  forests. 
To  them  it  seemed  impossible  that  these  forests  could  ever 
be  exhausted,  and  therefore  little  care  was  taken  for  their 
preservation. 

As  the  population  increased,  more  and  more  lumber  was 
needed  for  building  purposes.  Before  the  sawmill  came 
split  lumber  was  used,  and  the  shake-maker  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  cut  down  the  largest  and  most  valuable  pines  on 
the  mere  possibility  that  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  of  the  butt 
would  split  well  enough  to  make  shakes.  It  made  no  differ- 
ence to  him  that  the  whole  trunk  rotted  upon  the  ground. 

When  the  sawmills  were  built  and  there  came  a  demand 
from  abroad  for  lumber,  the  forests  were  attacked  upon 
a  much  larger  scale.  The  need  of  the  moment  was  all 
that  concerned  the  lumbermen,  and  they  took  no  care  for 
the  preservation  of  the  young  trees,  which  in  time  would 
have  renewed  the  supply.  The  litter  of  the  trunks  and 
branches  which  they  left  upon  the  ground  furnished  fuel 
for  the  fires  which  frequently  swept  over  these  areas  and 
killed  the  remaining  growth. 

As  a  result  of  these  fires,  the  few  animals  that  have 
escaped  the  hunters  have  been  killed  or  driven  from  their 
homes,  and  the  forest  cover,  which  would  retain  much  of 
the  moisture  and  preserve  it  for  the  supply  of  the  streams 
in  summer,  has  been  destroyed.  The  removal  of  the  forest 
cover  leads  also  to  the  washing  away  of  the  soil,  the  shoal- 


2Q2 


THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 


ing  of  the  streams,  floods  in  spring,  and  low  water  in  sum- 
mer. In  fact,  all  the  people  and  industries  of  the  region 
are  affected  by  its  loss.  It  may  take  hundreds  of  years  for 
the  country  to  recover ;  indeed,  if  the  rainfall  is  light,  the 
forests  may  never  grow  again,  without  artificial  aid. 


Fig.  130. — A  Burned  Forest,  Cascade  Range,  Oregon 

The  careless  stockman,  seeking  to  enlarge  his  pastures 
by  burning  the  underbrush,  sets  fires  which  often  destroy 
hundreds  of  square  miles  of  forest.  The  summer  camper 
and  the  prospector  also  frequently  go  on  their  way  without 
extinguishing  the  camp  fire,  though  a  great  forest  fire  may 
be  the  result. 

Ours  is  a  fertile  and  productive  earth,  capable  of  sup- 
porting a  multitude  of  living  things.  For  ages  the  lower 
animals,  as  well  as  savage  man,  lived  under  the  protection 


NATIONAL  PARKS   AND   FOREST   RESERVES      293 

of  Nature,  making  the  best  use  of  her  products  of  which 
they  were  capable ;  but  they  never  brought  about  the  un- 
necessary, and  often  wanton,  destruction  of  which  we  are 
guilty, — we,  who  call  ourselves  civilized.  In  killing  the 
wild  animals  we  cannot  make  the  plea  of  necessity,  as  can 


Fig.  131.  —  Erosion  upon  an  Unprotected  Slope 

savages  who  have  no  other  means  of  support.  Likewise, 
there  is  no  necessity  for  killing  the  beautiful  singing  birds, 
merely  for  their  plumage. 

The  forests  are  cut  away  without  any  thought  of  the 
retribution  which  Nature  is  sure  to  bring  upon  us.  They 
are  of  vast  importance  to  the  well-being  of  the  country 
and  are  the  natural  possession  of  all  its  people.  We  ought 
not  to  permit  them  to  be  destroyed  indiscriminately  for 
the  benefit  of  a  few.     We  need  lumber  for  many  purposes ; 


2Q4  THE  WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

but  a  careful  treatment  of  the  forests  with  an  eye  to  their 
continuance,  the  plan  of  cutting  large  trees,  and  pre- 
serving the  small  ones,  is  a  very  different  thing  from  our 
present  wasteful  methods. 

Every  summer  the  air  is  filled  with  the  smoke  of  burn- 
ing forests,  and  the  lumbermen  are  at  work  harder  than 
ever  felling  virgin  forests  upon  more  and  more  remote 
mountain  slopes. 

Books  of  travel  written  fifty  years  ago  tell  of  animal  life 
in  such  abundance  in  many  portions  of  the  West  that  we 
can  hardly  believe  their  stories.  A  description  of  Cali- 
fornia written  in  1848  mentions  elk,  antelope,  and  deer  as 
abundant  in  the  Great  Valley.  How  many  of  us  living  at 
the  present  time  have  ever  seen  one  of  these  animals  in 
its  native  haunts  ? 

There  is  hope  now  that  this  wasteful  use  of  Nature's 
gifts  will  soon  be  stopped.  Large  areas  of  the  mountain- 
ous portions  of  the  public  domain  are  being  set  aside  as 
parks  and  forest  reserves.  The  parks  contain  some  of  the 
finest  scenery  and  most  wonderful  natural  curiosities  to  be 
found  upon  the  face  of  the  whole  earth.  This  wild  scenery, 
together  with  the  forests  and  plants  of  every  kind,  as  well 
as  the  animals  and  birds  that  inhabit  these  areas,  are  to 
remain  just  as  they  were  when  the  first  white  man  looked 
upon  them. 

The  parks  form  asylums  for  the  wild  creatures  which 
have  been  hard  pressed  for  so  many  years.  In  the  Yel- 
lowstone National  Park,  where  they  have  been  protected 
the  longest,  the  animals  have  almost  lost  their  fear  of  man 
and  act  as  if  they  knew  that  they  are  safe  within  its  limits. 
In  the  Yellowstone  you  may  sec  great  herds  of  elk  feed- 
ing in  the  rich  meadows  ;  deer  stand  by  the  roadside  and 


NATIONAL   PARKS    AND    FOREST    RESERVES      295 

watch  you  pass,  while  the  bears  have  become  so  tame  about 
the  hotels  that  they  make  themselves  a  nuisance.  Sixteen 
bears  at  a  time  have  been  seen  feeding  at  the 'garbage  pile 
near  the  Grand  Canon  hotel. 

The  forest  reserves  differ  from  the  parks  in  that  they 
are  established  for  utility  rather  than  for  pleasure.  The 
forests  now  existing  are  to  be  cared  for  by  the  government 
and  to  be  wisely  used  when  lumber  is  needed.  Fires  are 
to  be  avoided  so  far  as  possible,  and  burned  areas  are  to  be 
replanted  with  trees.  Another  object  to  be  accomplished  is 
the  retention  of  the  forests  about  the  heads  of  the  streams 
so  as  to  preserve  the  summer  water  supply.  The  water 
runs  off  more  slowly  from  a  slope  covered  with  vegetation 
than  from  a  barren  one,  and  therefore  has  more  time  to 
soak  into  the  ground.  This  is  a  very  important  matter  in 
all  mountainous  districts,  particularly  where  the  rainfall  is 
light. 

The  Yellowstone  National  Park  is  situated  upon  the 
continental  divide  in  northwestern  Wyoming.  It  is 
largely  a  plateau,  with  an  elevation  of  seven  thousand 
to  eight  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
surface  of  the  plateau  is  covered  with  forests,  meadows, 
and  lakes;  but  the  region  is  particularly  remarkable  for 
the  geysers  and  hot  springs,  and  the  Grand  Canon  and 
falls  of  the  Yellowstone  River. 

Springs  clot  the  surface  of  many  parts  of  the  park. 
The  hot  water  is  continually  bringing  mineral  substances, 
the  chief  of  which  is  silica,  from  the  depths  of  the  earth  and 
depositing  them  about  the  orifices  of  the  springs.  In  this 
manner  wonderful  basins,  terraces,  and  cones  have  been 
built  up,  while  the  rocks  have  been  either  reddened  or 
bleached  out  and  softened  into  a  form  of  clay. 


296  THE   WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 

The  park  region  must  have  been  for  a  long  period  the 
seat  of  volcanic  action,  for  nearly  all  the  rocks  are  cooled 
lavas.  While  the  heat  has  disappeared  from  the  surface,  it 
must  still  be  very  great  below,  if  we  may  judge  by  the  quan- 
tities of  hot  water  continually  issuing  from  the  springs. 

In  many  a  subterranean  cavern  steam  accumulates  until 
its  pressure  becomes  too  great  for  the  column  of  water 
occupying  the  channel  that  leads  to  the  surface ;  then  the 
water  is  suddenly  and  forcibly  expelled,  giving  rise  to  a 
geyser  eruption.  When  the  pressure  of  the  steam  has 
become  exhausted,  the  water  sinks  back  into  the  earth, 
leaving  the  basin  of  the  geyser  nearly  or  quite  empty  until 
the  steam  has  again  collected.  Each  geyser  has  its  own 
period  of  eruption  and  is  generally  very  regular.  One 
little  geyser,  known  as  the  Economic,  because  it  throws 
out  but  little  water,  spouts  regularly  about  every  five  min- 
utes. Other  geysers  are  active  at  intervals  of  several 
hours,  while  some  take  several  years  to  get  ready  for  a 
new  eruption  and  then  spout  whole  rivers  of  boiling  water. 
In  the  Upper  Geyser  Basin  the  effect  is  very  impressive, 
particularly  upon  a  cool  morning.  The  clouds  of  steam 
and  the  throbbing  or  roaring  geysers  lend  to  the  region 
a  weird  and  unearthly  aspect. 

The  Yellowstone  Lake  is  a  large  body  of  water  situated 
almost  upon  the  continental  divide.  Before  the  canon,  or 
Great  Falls,  or  even  the  Yellowstone  River  itself  existed, 
the  lake  stood  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  higher 
than  at  present,  and  its  water  emptied  into  the  Pacific 
Ocean  instead  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  drainage 
was  changed  by  the  work  of  a  small  stream  having  its 
source  in  the  volcanic  plateau  north  of  the  lake.  It 
deepened  its  channel  and  extended  its  head  waters  back 


NATIONAL    PARKS   AND   FOREST    RESERVES       297 

until  they  tapped  the  lake  at  a  point  where  the  rim  of  the 
basin  was  lowest,  and  so  drew  away  its  waters  in  the  oppo- 


Fic  132.  —  Economic  Geyser,  Yellowstone  Park 

site  direction.  The  Yellowstone  River,  with  its  deep, 
wondrously  colored  canon  and  grand  waterfalls,  is  the 
result  of  this  change. 

To  the  south  of  Yellowstone  Park,  but  included  in  one 


298  THE   WESTERN   UNITED    STATES 

of  the  forest  reserves,  are  Jackson  Lake  and  the  Teton 
range.  The  Three  Tetons,  one  of  which  reaches  a  height 
of  over  thirteen  thousand  feet,  were  evidently  noted  land- 
marks for  the  hunters  and  trappers  in  the  early  days,  for 
you  will  find  them  mentioned  in  many  of  the  narratives  of 
those  times.  The  precipitous  range,  with  its  crown  of 
jagged  peaks  and  the  beautiful  lake  nestling  at  its  base, 
presents  a  picture  never  to  be  forgotten. 

Very  different  from  the  region  which  we  have  been  study- 
ing is  that  embracing  the  Crater  Lake,  National  Park, 
which  is  situated  upon  the  summit  of  the  Cascade  Range 
in  southern  Oregon.  Here  occurred,  not  many  thousand 
years  ago,  one  of  the  strangest  catastrophes  which,  so  far 
as  we  know,  has  ever  overtaken  any  portion  of  our  earth. 

Towering  over  the  present  basin  of  Crater  Lake  was  e 
great  volcano,  reaching,  probably,  nearly  three  miles  toward 
the  sky.  During  the  glacial  period  it  stood  there,  its 
slopes  white  with  snow,  apparently  as  strong  and  firm  as 
Shasta  or  Hood  or  Ranier.  But  for  some  reason  the  vol- 
canic forces  within  this  mountain,  which  has  been  called 
Mazama,  awoke  to  renewed  action.  The  interior  of  the 
mountain  was  melted,  and  the  whole  mass,  unable  to  stand 
longer,  fell  in  and  was  engulfed  in  the  fiery,  seething  lava. 
This  lava,  instead  of  welling  up  and  filling  the  crater  and 
perhaps  flowing  out,  was  drawn  down  through  the  throat 
of  the  volcano  into  the  earth,  and  left  an  enormous  pit  or 
crater  where  once  the  mountain  stood. 

After  the  floor  of  the  crater  cooled  and  hardened,  small 
eruptions  occurred  within  it  and  a  new  volcano  grew  up, 
but,  though  nearly  three  thousand  feet  high,  it  does  not 
reach  to  the  top  of  the  encircling  walls  of  the  old  crater, 
which  are,  on  an  average,  nearly  four  thousand  feet  high. 


NATIONAL   PARKS   AND   FOREST   RESERVES 


299 


Then  the  rains  and  melting  snows  formed  a  body  of 
water  in  the  crater,  and  the  wonderful  lake  came  into  ex- 
istence. No  such  sight  is  to  be  found  elsewhere  upon 
the  earth.  Within  a  circling  rim  of  cliffs,  from  eight 
hundred  to  two  thousand  feet  high  and  nearly  vertical,  lies 


Fig.  133. —  Crater  Lake 

From  the  top  of  the  cliffs  two  thousand  feet  above.    Upon  the  right  is  Wizard 

Island,  a  volcanic  cone 

the  lake,  rivalling  the  sky  in  the  depth  of  its  blue  color- 
ing. The  height  of  its  encircling  cliffs  and  its  five-mile 
expanse  of  blue  water  help  to  make  the  lake  a  spectacle 
grand  beyond  description.  At  the  present  time  the  vol- 
canic fires  appear  to  be  entirely  extinct. 

Forests  of  fir  and  tamarack  have  spread  over  the  once 
barren  slopes  of  lava  and  pumice  which  extend  back  from 
the  cliffs.     In  the  hollows,  after  the  lingering  winter  snows 


300 


THE  WESTERN   UNITED   STATES 


have  melted,  there  are  grassy  meadows  dotted  with  flowers. 
It  is  many  miles  from  the  lake  to  any  human  habitation, 
and  all  the  region  about  remains  just  as  Nature  left  it.  It 
was  a  happy  thought  to  make  another  national  park  here. 

We  have  already  learned  something  of  the  grandeur  of 
the  Yosemite  Valley  and  have  seen  how  it  came  into  exist- 


Fig.  134.  —  The  Punch  Bowl,  Yellowstone  Park 

ence.  The  valley  is  owned  and  cared  for  as  a  public  park 
by  the  state  of  California,  but,  with  Hetch-Hetchy  Valley, 
it  is  included  in  a  larger  park  under  the  control  of  the 
general  government.  Within  the  boundaries  of  this  na- 
tional park,  as  in  the  case  of  the  others  described,  the 
natural  features  of  the  landscape,  the  forests,  and  the 
animals,  are  to  be  left  forever  undisturbed.  The  Yosemite 
Valley,  although  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  rugged  Sierras, 
is  reached  by  several  good  wagon  roads  and  many  more 
people  visit  it  than  go  to  Crater  Lake,  although  the  latter 
is  fully  as  interesting. 


Fig.  135.  —  The  Falls  of  the  Yellowstone,  Yellowstone  Canon 


302  THE   WESTERN    UNITED   STATES 

About  a  hundred  miles  south  of  the  Yosemite  is  the  Gen- 
eral Grant  National  Park.  This  park  is  of  comparatively 
small  size,  but  contains  a  group  of  some  of  the  largest  and 
finest  Big  Trees  in  the  country.  Still  farther  south  there 
is  a  reserve  called  the  Sequoia  Park,  which  contains  the 
largest  remaining  groves  of  the  Big  Trees. 

There  are  also  many  state  parks  scattered  over  different 
parts  of  the  Union.  The  establishment  of  these  parks  is 
intended  to  preserve  either  the  forests  or  natural  scenery. 

The  retention  by  the  state  or  general  government  of 
large  tracts  of  mountain  and  timber  land,  and  of  those 
areas  which  are  particularly  interesting  on  account  of  their 
natural  scenery,  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  The  tim- 
ber and  water  are  preserved  for  the  general  good  instead 
of  being  squandered  for  the  enrichment  of  individuals. 

The  preservation  of  scenic  features  in  their  original 
wild  state  is  just  and  right,  because  such  things  add  to  the 
pleasure  of  out-of-door  life,  elevate  men's  feelings,  and  culti- 
vate a  love  for  the  beautiful.  The  protection  afforded  the 
plant  and  animal  life  by  these  reserves  gives  a  better  op- 
portunity for  studying  them,  and  tends  to  foster  a  general 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  living  things. 


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